ABSTRACT

OBJECTIVE

To estimate the prevalence of hepatitis A virus (HAV) and hepatitis E virus (HEV) among immigrants and refugees in Goiás, Central Brazil.

METHODS

Overall, 355 individuals were interviewed, and blood samples were tested for anti-HAV and anti-HEV IgG. Anti-HEV-positive samples were similarly tested for HEV RNA.

RESULTS

All participants were from Latin American countries, most of whom, young adult males. The overall anti-HAV IgG prevalence was 87.4% (95%CI: 83.5–90.4), of whom 94.9%, 75.6%, and 60% were from Haiti, Venezuela, and other Latin American countries, respectively (p < 0.001). Age above 19 years and more than 36 months residing in Brazil were associated with a higher prevalence of previous HAV and HEV infection, respectively. Of the children eligible for HAV vaccination according to the National Immunization Program, only eight (44%) had been vaccinated. The overall anti-HEV IgG prevalence was 6.5% (95%CI: 4.4–9.5). All anti-HEV IgG-positive individuals were Haitians, including a child born in Brazil. HEV RNA was detected in two of the anti-HEV IgG-positive samples.

CONCLUSION

The survey detected a high prevalence of anti-HAV and anti-HEV IgG among immigrants and refugees, and active HEV infection among some Haitian participants. Prevention measures are urgently required to interrupt enteric virus transmission in this emergent and vulnerable population.

Refugees; Latin America; Hepatitis A, epidemiology; Hepatitis E, epidemiology; Seroepidemiologic Studies

INTRODUCTION

According to the United Nations, there were 272 million international migrants worldwide in 2019, and approximately 80 million people were forcibly displaced from their homes, of whom 26 million were refugees¹1. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Statistics and Demographics Section. Global Trends: forced displacement in 2019. Copenhagen (DK): UNHCR; 2020 [cited 2021 Aug 21]. Available from: https://www.unhcr.org/5ee200e37.pdf
https://www.unhcr.org/5ee200e37.pdf... . There were an estimated 1.1 million international migrants in Brazil in mid-2020, most of whom were from Latin American and Caribbean countries²2. United Nations. Total number of International migrants at mid-year 2020. New York: UN; 2020. Brazil: key migration statistics;Germany; 2020 [cited 2021 Aug 21]. Available from: https://migrationdataportal.org/data?i=stock_abs_&t=2020&cm49=76.
https://migrationdataportal.org/data?i=s... .

Enteric diseases are important causes of morbidity among migrant populations³3. Ergönül O, Tülek N, Kayi I, Irmak H, Erdem O, Dara M. Profiling infectious diseases in Turkey after the influx of 3.5 million Syrian refugees. Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2020;26(3):307-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmi.2019.06.022
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmi.2019.06.02... ,⁴4. Savage RD, Rosella LC, Crowcroft NS, Horn M, Khan K, Varia M. Accuracy of health administrative data to identify cases of reportable travel or migration-related infectious diseases in Ontario, Canada. PLoS One. 2018;13(11):e0207030. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0207030
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.020... . Therefore, hepatitis A virus (HAV) and hepatitis E virus (HEV) infections, which are generally associated with poverty, overcrowding, and poor sanitation⁵5. Abutaleb A, Kottilil S. Hepatitis A: epidemiology, natural history, unusual clinical manifestations, and prevention. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 2020;49(2):191-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gtc.2020.01.002
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gtc.2020.01.00... ,⁶6. Goel A, Aggarwal R. Hepatitis E: epidemiology, clinical course, prevention, and treatment. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 2020;49(2):315-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gtc.2020.01.011
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gtc.2020.01.01... , are relatively common among immigrants and refugees⁷7. Lagare A, Ibrahim A, Ousmane S, Issaka B, Zaneidou M, Kadadé G, et al. Outbreak of Hepatitis E virus infection in displaced persons camps in Diffa Region, Niger, 2017. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2018;99(4):1055-7. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.17-0950
https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.17-0950... .

HAV and HEV are hepatotropic RNA viruses. HAV belongs to the family Picornaviridae, genus Hepatovirus, species Hepatovirus A Virus, and HEV belongs to the family Hepeviridae, genus Orthohepevirus, species Hepatitis E Virus¹²12. International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Genus: Hepatovirus. Berlin (DE): ICTV; 2018.. Both are responsible for acute self-limited hepatitis; however, HEV can cause chronic hepatitis in immunosuppressed individuals⁵5. Abutaleb A, Kottilil S. Hepatitis A: epidemiology, natural history, unusual clinical manifestations, and prevention. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 2020;49(2):191-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gtc.2020.01.002
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gtc.2020.01.00... ,⁶6. Goel A, Aggarwal R. Hepatitis E: epidemiology, clinical course, prevention, and treatment. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 2020;49(2):315-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gtc.2020.01.011
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gtc.2020.01.01... . Additionally, pregnant women infected with HEV are at high risk of fulminant hepatitis⁶6. Goel A, Aggarwal R. Hepatitis E: epidemiology, clinical course, prevention, and treatment. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 2020;49(2):315-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gtc.2020.01.011
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gtc.2020.01.01... .

Globally, HEV causes approximately 20 million new cases of hepatitis and 70,000 deaths annually¹³13. Rein DB, Stevens GA, Theaker J, Wittenborn JS, Wiersma ST. The global burden of hepatitis E virus genotypes 1 and 2 in 2005. Hepatology. 2012;55(4):988-97. https://doi.org/10.1002/hep.25505
https://doi.org/10.1002/hep.25505... , with nearly 1.5 million new cases of hepatitis A annually and 7,000 deaths. These infections pose the greatest burden on low-income countries⁵5. Abutaleb A, Kottilil S. Hepatitis A: epidemiology, natural history, unusual clinical manifestations, and prevention. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 2020;49(2):191-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gtc.2020.01.002
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gtc.2020.01.00... ,⁶6. Goel A, Aggarwal R. Hepatitis E: epidemiology, clinical course, prevention, and treatment. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 2020;49(2):315-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gtc.2020.01.011
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gtc.2020.01.01... . While no HEV vaccine is recommended by the World Health Organization¹⁴14. World Organization Health. Meeting on the Strategic Advisory Group of experts on immunization, October 2014: conclusions and recommendations. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 2014;89(50):561-76.,¹⁵15. Melgaço JG, Gardinali NR, Mello VM, Leal M, Lewis-Ximenez LL, Pinto MA. Hepatitis E: update on prevention and control. Biomed Res Int. 2018;2018:5769201. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/5769201
https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/5769201... , available Hepatitis A vaccines are recommended for children aged > 1 year living in intermediate- and low-endemic regions¹⁶16. World Organization Health. Hepatitis A vaccine: WHO position. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. WHO; 2000;75(5):37-44..

Currently, Brazil is an intermediate-endemic region for HAV infection¹⁷17. Ximenes RAA, Martelli CMT, Amaku M, Sartori AMC, Soárez PC, Novaes HMD, et al. Modelling the force of infection for hepatitis A in an urban population-based survey: a comparison of transmission patterns in Brazilian macro-regions. PLoS One. 2014;9(5):e94622. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0094622
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.009... , and offers the recommended HAV vaccine free of charge to all children aged under five years¹⁸18. Ministério da Saúde (BR), Secretaria de Vigilância em Saúde, Departamento de Vigilância das Doenças Transmissíveis, Coordenação-Geral do Programa Nacional de Imunizações. Nota Informativa Nº 384, de 2016/CGPNI/DEVIT/SVS/MS. Informa as mudanças no Calendário Nacional de Vacinação para o ano de 2017. Brasília, DF; 2016 [cited 2021 Aug 21]. Available from: http://www.sgc.goias.gov.br/upload/arquivos/2017-01/nota-inf-384_-sem-anexos.pdf
http://www.sgc.goias.gov.br/upload/arqui... . The HEV prevalence has been observed among different population subgroups. A systematic review estimated a 3% anti-HEV immunoglobin G (IgG) prevalence tin the Brazilian general population¹⁹19. Tengan FM, Figueiredo GM, Nunes AKS, Manchiero C, Dantas BP, Magri MC, et al. Seroprevalence of hepatitis E in adults in Brazil: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Infect Dis Poverty. 2019;8:3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40249-018-0514-4
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40249-018-0514-... .

There are currently no data available on hepatitis A and E among international migrants in Brazil, an emergent and socially vulnerable population. Therefore, this study aimed to estimate the prevalence of HAV and HEV among immigrants and refugees in the state of Goiás, Central Brazil.

METHODS

There are no official data on the distribution of immigrants and refugees in Goiás. Thus, we obtained personal information from non-governmental organizations assisting immigrants and refugees in Goiás, Central Brazil. According to these non-governmental organizations, Goiania (1.536.097 inhabitants), Aparecida de Goiânia (590.146 inhabitants), and Anápolis (391.772 inhabitants)²⁰20. Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística. Cidades e Estados. Rio de Janeiro: IBGE; 2020. receive most international immigrants in Goiás. Therefore, between July 2019 and January 2020, a cross-sectional study was performed among international migrants (immigrants and refugees) residing in these three municipalities, which account for the highest gross domestic product per capita and human development indices (HDI) in the state of Goiás²¹21. Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística. Panorama Cidades – Goiânia. Rio de Janeiro: IBGE; c2017 [cited 2021 Aug 21]. Available from: https://cidades.ibge.gov.br/brasil/go/goiania/panorama
https://cidades.ibge.gov.br/brasil/go/go... .

In this study, an “international immigrant” was defined as any person migrating from one country to another to establish residence²²22. International Organization for Migration. International Migration Law- Glossary on Migration nº 34. Geneva (CH): IOM; 2019 [cited 2021 Aug 21]. Available from: https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/iml_34_glossary.pdf
https://publications.iom.int/system/file... . According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), an international immigrant chooses to migrate spontaneously for qualification, economic interests, environmental disasters, or other reasons, whereas the refugee is forced to relocate to preserve his freedom, or even his life, due to persecution, armed conflicts, and human rights violations²³23. Alto Comissariado das Nações Unidas para Refugiados. Refugiado ou migrante? O ACNUR incentiva a usar o termo correto. Genebra (CH); 2015 [cited 2021 Aug 21]. Available from: https://www.acnur.org/portugues/2015/10/01/refugiado-ou-migrante-o-acnur-incentiva-a-usar-o-termo-correto/
https://www.acnur.org/portugues/2015/10/... .

The minimum sample size was estimated to be 559 international migrants, assuming a prevalence of 3%²⁴24. Horvatits T, Ozga AK, Westholter D, Hartl J, Manthey CF, Lutgehetmann M, et al. Hepatitis E seroprevalence in the Americas: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Liver Int. 2018;38(11):1951-64. https://doi.org/10.1111/liv.13859
https://doi.org/10.1111/liv.13859... , 95%CI (p < 0.05), 80% statistical power (β = 20%), ± 2% precision, and a design effect of 2. However, due to the COVID-19 2019 pandemic, data collection was interrupted after 70% of the target sample had been surveyed. International migrants who had been living in Brazil for approximately 10 years were included in this study. Due to the difficulty of drawing blood from young children, those aged under two years were excluded.

The access to the study population was facilitated by non-governmental organizations and religious groups providing social assistance to international migrants. Data collection was performed in private venues such as churches and non-governmental organization facilities. Individuals were interviewed face-to-face by trained interviewers in the language of their choice (Portuguese, Spanish, French, English, or Creole) to collect socioeconomic data via a common script.

Blood samples were collected and tested for HAV and HEV markers. All samples were tested for total anti-HAV (Elecsys^® Anti-HAV II, Roche Diagnostics, USA) by electrochemiluminescence and anti-HEV IgG (Recomwell HEV IgG, Mikrogen GmbH, Neuried, Germany) by enzyme-linked immunosorbent (ELISA). Children aged up to five years were equally tested for anti-HAV IgM by ELISA using Bioelisa HAV IgM assay (Biokit, Barcelona, Spain). Anti-HEV positive samples were tested for HEV RNA using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with primers and probes for the ORF three regions of HEV, as described elsewhere²⁵25. Santos DRL, Paula VS, Oliveira JM, Marchevsky RS, Pinto MA. Hepatitis E virus in swine and effluent samples from slaughterhouses in Brazil. Vet Microbiol. 2011;149(1-2):236-41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2010.10.024
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2010.10... .

Data were analyzed using Stata statistical software version 13.0 (StataCorp., College Station, TX). The prevalence of antibodies was estimated with 95%CI. The Chi-squared test and Fisher’s exact test were used to compare categorical variables. To identify variables independently associated with anti-HAV seropositivity, variables with p < 0.1 in the univariable analysis were included in a robust Poisson regression model. The significance level used in the tests was 5%.

This study was approved by the Committee on Ethics in Research of the Universidade Federal de Goiás (protocol number: 06871019.7.0000.5083). All participants provided written informed consent. Parents or guardians provided consent for minors, but minors did so if they were old enough. Via a partnership between the project and the health department, hepatitis A vaccines were administered to all eligible children participating in this study.

RESULTS

In total, we recruited 385 international resident migrants, of whom 355 were eligible, and agreed to participate in the interview and blood draw, the latter being the major reason for non-participation. There were no sociodemographic differences between those who participated and those who refused to. Nine children under 10 years refused to undergo blood draw.

Of the 355 participants, 249 (70.1%) were immigrants, 101 (28.5%), refugees, and five, Brazilian children (1.4%) born to Haitian immigrant parents. Of the total sample, 218 (61.4%) were Haitians, 132 (37.2%), Venezuelans. The others (1.4%) were Colombian (n = 1), Cuban (n = 2), Ecuadorian (n = 1) and Dominican (n = 1). Most of the immigrants and refugees were Haitians (71.5%) and Venezuelans (63.4%) (p < 0.001).

Most migrants were male (56.1%) and self-declared black/brown (85.6%). The median age was 30 years (interquartile range [IQR]: 22–39 years), and the median duration of formal education was 11 years (IQR: 7–14 years). The length of time living in Brazil ranged from < 1 to 120 months (median: 18 months). Among the participants aged 18 years and above, 292 (57.6%) were married, and 178, employed; 86.5% of whom earned R$ 1,500 (equivalent to approximately $375 US) or less per month.

In total, 23 Haitian individuals (6.5%; 95%CI: 4.4–9.5) were anti-HEV positive. Of these, one was a child born in Brazil to Haitian parents. Anti-HEV prevalence among Haitian migrants was 10.6% (95%CI: 7.13–15.33). Individuals who had been in Brazil for longer than 36 months were significantly more likely to have anti-HEV IgG (p = 0.046) (Table 1). Two individuals were HEV RNA positive, but their viral loads were low. All anti-HEV-IgG-positive individuals were also anti-HAV IgG positive.

Overall, 18 children were eligible for HAV vaccination, either because they were aged under five years when they arrived in Brazil (n = 13), or were born in Brazil (n = 5). However, only seven of the eligible children (44%), five Venezuelans and two Brazilians had Brazilian records of hepatitis A vaccination. We excluded these seven children from the analysis. The overall anti-HAV IgG prevalence was 87.4% (95%CI: 83.5–90.4). Anti-HAV IgG prevalence was 94.9% (95%CI: 91.1–97.1), 75.6% (95%CI: 67.4–82.2), and 60% (95%CI: 23.1–88.2) among Haitians, Venezuelans, and other Latin American individuals, respectively. We included age, education, length of time living in Brazil, and Haitian origin in a multiple regression model, and only age above 19 years remained independently associated with anti-HAV positivity (both p < 0.001) (Table 2).

DISCUSSION

This is the first study on HAV and HEV among international migrants in Brazil. Most participants were Haitian and Venezuelan. This was unsurprising and reflected the regional migratory influx in the last decade in Brazil and the solidary migratory policy in Latin America and the Caribbean²⁶26. Cavalcanti L, Oliveira T, Macêdo M, Pereda L. Imigração e refúgio no Brasil: Relatório Anual do Observatório das Migrações Internacionais 2019. Brasília, DF: Ministério da Justiça e Segurança Pública; 2019. (Série Migrações)..

Following the 2010 earthquake in Haiti, which caused multiple deaths, loss of homes, and poverty expansion in Haiti, Brazil granted a permanent visa to reunite families on humanitarian grounds to Haitians who could prove domicile in Haiti and had no criminal record²⁷27. Cavalcanti L, Tonhati T, Araújo D, Brasil E, Oliveira T. Haitian immigrants in the Brazilian labour market: an overview. Rev Est Pesq Am. 2017;11(1):192-203. https://doi.org/10.21057/repam.v11i1.25452
https://doi.org/10.21057/repam.v11i1.254... . Brazil recognized Venezuelans as refugees under the extended refugee definition in the 1984 Cartagena Declaration on Refugees and the national legislation which also facilitated their migration¹1. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Statistics and Demographics Section. Global Trends: forced displacement in 2019. Copenhagen (DK): UNHCR; 2020 [cited 2021 Aug 21]. Available from: https://www.unhcr.org/5ee200e37.pdf
https://www.unhcr.org/5ee200e37.pdf... .

A recent systematic review estimated a high prevalence of HAV infection in Haiti, and an intermediate one in Venezuela²⁸28. Andani A, Elten TM, Bunge EM, Marano C, Salgado F, Jacobsen KH. Hepatitis A epidemiology in Latin American countries: a 2020 view from a systematic literature review. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2020;19(9):795-805. https://doi.org/10.1080/14760584.2020.1813575
https://doi.org/10.1080/14760584.2020.18... . This study observed a high HAV endemicity among all migrants. Almost all individuals aged above 19 years had previously shown HAV infections. However, Haitian participants had the highest HAV prevalence. This finding most likely reflects the lower socioeconomic status of the Haitian population, which has experienced economic and political crises in addition to environmental disasters.

Young children tend to develop asymptomatic hepatitis A and play a key role in disseminating HAV in highly endemic regions⁵5. Abutaleb A, Kottilil S. Hepatitis A: epidemiology, natural history, unusual clinical manifestations, and prevention. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 2020;49(2):191-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gtc.2020.01.002
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gtc.2020.01.00... . Therefore, surveillance of hepatitis A should be a public health priority among migrants from highly endemic regions migrating into low to intermediate-endemicity countries, such as Brazil¹⁷17. Ximenes RAA, Martelli CMT, Amaku M, Sartori AMC, Soárez PC, Novaes HMD, et al. Modelling the force of infection for hepatitis A in an urban population-based survey: a comparison of transmission patterns in Brazilian macro-regions. PLoS One. 2014;9(5):e94622. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0094622
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.009... ,²⁸28. Andani A, Elten TM, Bunge EM, Marano C, Salgado F, Jacobsen KH. Hepatitis A epidemiology in Latin American countries: a 2020 view from a systematic literature review. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2020;19(9):795-805. https://doi.org/10.1080/14760584.2020.1813575
https://doi.org/10.1080/14760584.2020.18... . Eighteen children in the sample were eligible for HAV vaccination, but only seven had been vaccinated, indicating that the national health system failed to identify and vaccinate migrant children at a high risk of HAV infection.

As there is no gold standard for measurement, the prevalence of anti-HEV can be under- or overestimated depending on the sensitivity and specificity of the assay. In this study, using the Mikrogen^® assay, which has 98.9% sensitivity and 98.5% specificity²⁹29. Naewiger M, Struck F, Lüttich S, Uzun S, Nölting C, Krämer B, et al. Hepatitis E virus ELISA and Line Immunoassy for diagnosis of Acute HEV infections. In. 26. European Congress of Clinical Microbiology and Infections Diseases;9-12 April 2016; Amsterdam, Netherlands., we observed a relatively high prevalence of anti-HEV IgG among Haitians, indicating a high level of susceptibility. No other information is available on HEV prevalence in the general Haitian population, but a recent study found a 10.3% anti-HEV IgG prevalence among pregnant Haitian women³⁰30. Tejada-Strop A, Tohme RA, Andre-Alboth J, Childs L, Ji X, Castro VOL, et al. Seroprevalence of Hepatitis A and Hepatitis E viruses among pregnant women in Haiti. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2019;101(1):230-2. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.19-0020
https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.19-0020... , consistent with the prevalence observed among the Haitian migrants in this study. Therefore, our findings may reflect the HEV epidemiology in Haiti.

A systematic review estimated a 3% anti-HEV IgG prevalence in the Brazilian general population¹⁹19. Tengan FM, Figueiredo GM, Nunes AKS, Manchiero C, Dantas BP, Magri MC, et al. Seroprevalence of hepatitis E in adults in Brazil: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Infect Dis Poverty. 2019;8:3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40249-018-0514-4
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40249-018-0514-... . However, the prevalence found among Haitians is within the wide range of anti-HEV prevalence in Brazilian subgroups. A study employing the same assay used in this study found that the anti-HEV IgG prevalence ranged from 2.5% among kidney transplant recipients³¹31. Oliveira JMNS, Freitas NR, Teles SA, Bottino FO, Lemos AS, Oliveira JM, et al. Prevalence of hepatitis E virus RNA and antibodies in a cohort of kidney transplant recipients in Central Brazil. Int J Infect Dis. 2018;69:41-3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2018.01.032
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2018.01.0... in Goiás in the Midwest to 23.7% in people living in a small municipality in São Paulo in the Southeast³²32. Araújo DCE, Oliveira JM, Haddad SK, Roza DL, Bottino FO, Faria SBSC, et al. Declining prevalence of hepatitis A and silent circulation of hepatitis E virus infection in southeastern Brazil. Int J Infect Dis. 2020;101:17-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2020.09.024
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2020.09.0... .

Notably, we detected anti-HEV IgG in a child because HEV infection is uncommon among children in low HEV-endemic regions⁶6. Goel A, Aggarwal R. Hepatitis E: epidemiology, clinical course, prevention, and treatment. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 2020;49(2):315-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gtc.2020.01.011
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gtc.2020.01.01... . Furthermore, two individuals who had lived in Brazil for < 6 months were anti-HEV IgG positive, and we observed a statistically significant association between the length of time in Brazil and anti-HEV IgG positivity. Furthermore, two individuals were RNA-HEV positive with low viral loads, indicating recent infections. This suggests the HEV is circulating in Haitian migrants, indicating a need for urgent preventive health measures to interrupt the chain of transmission in this specific group.

The limitations of this study include the convenience sampling, implying that participants in this study may be an atypical sample of international migrants in Goiás, even though the majority of migrants in Brazil come from Latin America. Despite this limitation, our study provides the first data on HAV and HEV among international migrants in Brazil. The number of children in this study was small; hence, the study findings may provide an inaccurate estimate of HAV and HEV infection in the children of migrants. Moreover, data on HAV vaccination only included children whose vaccination was in Brazilian records. We cannot exclude the possibility that these children may have received HAV vaccination in their country of origin, but this is very unlikely because HAV vaccination was excluded from the Haitian and Venezuelan national immunization programs³³33. Pan American Health Organization. Hepatitis vaccines. Washington, DC: PAHO; 2020 [cited 2021 Aug 21]. Available from: https://www.paho.org/en/tag/hepatitis-vaccines
https://www.paho.org/en/tag/hepatitis-va... .

This study showed a high prevalence of HAV and HEV infections. It suggests HAV immunization failed to reach children of international migrants, highlighting the high vulnerability of this emergent population. Nevertheless, further studies are necessary to describe the HEV epidemiology among Haitians and determine HAV vaccination coverage among migrants overall.

REFERENCES

Publication Dates

History