ABSTRACT

OBJECTIVE

To analyze the association of television food advertisements with eating habits in Brazilian adolescents.

METHODS

The sample was composed of 1,011 adolescents, aged from 10–17 years. The influence of television food advertisements on eating habits, as well as food consumption and socioeconomic variables were assessed through questionnaires. A binary logistic regression was performed to assess the magnitude of the associations, adjusted for gender, age, socioeconomic status, and parental schooling.

RESULTS

Of the sample, 83.3% (n = 843) reported food consumption while watching TV. Adolescents who do not consume food while watching TV had a higher weekly consumption of fruits (3.98, SD = 2.0 versus 3.39, SD = 2.1) and vegetables (4.1, SD = 2.2 versus 3.4, SD = 2.3). Adolescents that consume food while watching TV had higher weekly consumption of fried foods (3.1, SD = 2.0 versus 2.3, SD = 1.7), sweets (4.1, SD = 2.1 versus 3.3, SD = 2.1), soft drinks (3.2, SD = 2.1 versus 2.2, SD = 1.9), and snacks (2.3, SD = 2.0 versus 1.6, SD = 1.7). For 73,8% of the sample, food advertisements induce product consumerism, most commonly sweets and fast foods. Buying or asking to buy food after seeing it on the television was associated with fried foods (OR = 1.36, 95%CI = 1.03– 1.79), sweets (OR = 1.69, 95%CI = 1.30–2.18), and snacks (OR = 1.57, 95%CI = 1.12–2.22).

CONCLUSION

Food advertisements were associated with greater consumption of fried foods, sweets, and snacks in adolescents, even after adjusting for confounding factors.

Adolescent; Feeding Behavior; Food Publicity; Food and Nutrition Education

INTRODUCTION

Healthy habits in childhood tend to remain during adult life and contribute to prevent comorbidities like obesity and cardiovascular diseases¹1. Lawlor DA, Benfield L, Logue J, Tilling K, Howe LD, Fraser A, et al. Association between general and central adiposity in childhood, and change in these, with cardiovascular risk factors in adolescence: prospective cohort study. BMJ. 2010;341:c6224. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.c6224
https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.c6224... . However, a considerable portion of the worldwide population presents overweight or obesity, closely related to the public health problem of inappropriate nutrition²2. World Health Organization. Nutrition for health and development: a global agenda for combating malnutrition. Geneva: WHO; 2000 [cited 2017 May 15]. Available from: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/66509/WHO_NHD_00.6.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/hand... .

Although obesity has a multifactorial cause-genetic factors, environmental influences and lifestyle behavior³3. Güngör NK. Overweight and obesity in children and adolescents. J Clin Res Pediatr Endocrinol. 2014;6(3):129-43. https://doi.org/10.4274/Jcrpe.1471
https://doi.org/10.4274/Jcrpe.1471... the most frequently reported reasons to justify the association between nutrition and obesity are excessive consumption of energy-dense foods⁴4. Christofaro DGD, Andrade SM, Mesas AE, Fernandes RA, Farias Júnior JC. Higher screen time is associated with overweight, poor dietary habits and physical inactivity in Brazilian adolescents, mainly among girls. Eur J Sport Sci. 2016;16(4);498-506. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2015.1068868
https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2015.10... . Unhealthy food intake is linked to impulsivity⁵5. Kakoschke N, Kemps E, Tiggemann M. External eating mediates the relationship between impulsivity and unhealthy food intake. Physiol Behav. 2015;147:117-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.04.030
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.0... and the observed positive correlation of frequency of advertised foods on television and its consumption suggests an influence of television advertisements exposure on food choices⁶6. Díaz-Ramírez G, Jiménez-Cruz A, Souto-Gallardo MC, Bacardí-Gascón M. Effect of the exposure to TV food advertisements on the consumption of foods by mothers and children. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2013;56(1):86-8. https://doi.org/10.1097/MPG.0b013e3182638d13
https://doi.org/10.1097/MPG.0b013e318263... . The lack of exposure to healthy foods and the temptation to consume unhealthy foods act as barriers to healthy choices by adolescents, independent of race, gender and age⁷7. Wippold GM, Tucker CM, Smith TM. Motivators of and barriers to eating foods and snacks among adolescents. Am J Lifestyle Med. 2015;10(3):207-15. https://doi.org/10.1177/15598276155755058.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1559827615575505... .

Unhealthy eating habits has been related to iron and vitamins A and C deficiencies⁸8. Deka MK, Malhotra AK, Yadav R, Gupta S. Dietary pattern and nutritional deficiencies among urban adolescents. J Family Med Prim Care. 2015;4(3):364-8. https://doi.org/10.4103/2249-4863.161319
https://doi.org/10.4103/2249-4863.161319... , which may lead to physical growth and intellectual activity impairment, as well as higher risk of morbidity and mortality⁹9. Bailey RL, West KP Jr, Black RE. The epidemiology of global micronutrient deficiencies. Ann Nutr Metab. 2015;66 Suppl 2:22-33. https://doi.org/10.1159/000371618
https://doi.org/10.1159/000371618... , being a public health issue even in those not obese.

A meta-analysis with over 25,000 children observed that high consumption of sugary drinks has been linked to weight gain in children¹⁰10. Malik VERSUS, Pan A, Willett WC, Hu FB. Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. 2013;98(4):1084-102. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.113.058362
https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.113.058362... . Moreover, the consumption of high-energy foods increases in the presence of activities based on screens¹¹11. Mekhmoukh A, Chapelot D, Bellisle F. Influence of environmental factors on meal intake in overweight and normal-weight male adolescents: a laboratory study. Appetite. 2012;59(1):90-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2012.03.021
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2012.03.... . Beliefs about the consumption of unhealthy foods and health risks tend to vary according to TV exposure: more time spent watching television is associated with lower negative and higher positive beliefs about the consequences of unhealthy food consumption¹²12. Russell CA, Buhrau D. The role of television viewing and direct experience in predicting adolescents beliefs about the health risks of fast-food consumption. Appetite. 2015;92:200-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2015.05.023
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2015.05.... . Another study observed that eating snacks while watching television was a predictor of high energy food consumption¹³13. Pearson N, Griffiths P, Biddle SJH, Johnston JP, Haycraft E. Individual behavioral and home environmental factors associated with eating behaviors in young adolescents. Appetite. 2017;112:35-43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2017.01.001
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2017.01.... .

Therefore, this study aimed to analyze the association of TV food advertisements with the desire to consume food, such as the weekly consumption of high-energy foods, in adolescents, even after controlling for confounding factors.

METHODS

Sample Selection and Inclusion Criteria

According to the Department of Education, the city of Presidente Prudente-SP has approximately 37,000 students regularly enrolled in public and private systems of which 27,860 are enrolled in elementary school and 9,105 in high school. Approximately 20% of these are private schools. Presidente Prudente is located in the southeast region of Brazil, with a population of 207,610 inhabitants and a high human development index (HDI = 0.806)¹⁴14. Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística. Cidades 2017. Rio de Janeiro: IBGE; c2017 [cited 2017 July 29]. Available from: https://cidades.ibge.gov.br/
https://cidades.ibge.gov.br/... .

The sample of this study comprised students aged from 10 to 17 years, all regularly enrolled in schools of the city educational system (public and private). To contemplate students in the different regions (North, South, East, West, and Central), one school was chosen from each region in a randomized process. All classes of the selected schools were evaluated. If a region lacked the minimum sample required by this research, a second school was randomly selected and evaluated.

The inclusion criteria were: I) adolescents aged 10 to 17 years; II) enrolled in elementary or middle levels of the public or private educational network; and III) who returned an informed consent form, signed by one of their parents or guardians. This study was approved by the Ethics and Research Committee of the Universidade Estadual de São Paulo (Unesp).

Sample Calculation

Sample processing considered a prevalence of use of screen time of 70%, based on a previous study¹⁵15. Fulton JE, Wang X, Yore MM, Carlson SA, Galuska DA, Caspersen CJ. Television viewing, computer use, and BMI among U.S. children and adolescents. J Phys Act Health. 2009;6 Suppl 1:S28-35. https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.6.s1.s28
https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.6.s1.s28... . As the study was performed by conglomerates, a correction of the design effect of 1.5 was applied. Coupled with possible sample losses of 20% and considering a tolerable maximum error of five percentage points, the total minimum required for the investigation was 576 subjects.

Dependent Variables

Use of television and advertising relationship with eating habits

Food consumption by adolescents when watching television was self-reported and assessed by the following questions:

The influence of television advertisements on food consumption was assessed by the following questions:

Anthropometric measurements

For the anthropometric assessment, the adolescents were barefoot and wearing light clothes. Body mass was obtained by a digital scale (Plenna®, São Paulo, Brazil), with a precision of 0.1 kg. Height was obtained using a portable stadiometer (Sanny®, American Medical do Brasil, São Paulo, Brazil) with a maximum extension of two meters and precision of 0.1 centimeter.

Food consumption

Weekly food consumption was rated by weekly frequency intake of different types of food¹⁶16. Block G, Gillespie C, Rosenbaum EH, Jenson C. A rapid food screener to assess fat and fruit and vegetable intake. Am J Prev Med. 2000;18(4):284-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0749-3797(00)00119-7
https://doi.org/10.1016/s0749-3797(00)00... . We analyzed the consumption of fruits, vegetables, sweets, soft drinks, fried foods, and dairy (cheese, yogurt, cottage cheese, etc.). The classification for high weekly food consumption considered consumption of five or more times a week of each food.

Socioeconomic variables

Economic condition was determined by the “Criteria for Classification of Brazil”¹⁷17. Associação Brasileira de Empresas de Pesquisa. Levantamento socio-econômico 2012 – Base LSE 2010. São Paulo: ABEP; 2012. [cited 2017 July 25]. Available from: http://www.abep.org/Servicos/Download.aspx?id=03
http://www.abep.org/Servicos/Download.as... . This instrument classify the economic condition into classes A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, C2, D, and E. After the subjects’ classification, the sample was stratified between high economic class (categories A1, A2, and B1), middle economic class (B2 and C1), and low economic class (C2, D, and E).

Statistical Analysis

Sample characterization was presented as mean and standard deviation for the consumption or non-consumption of food during the time watching television. The odds ratio (OR), estimated through binary logistic regression, assessed the association between the dependent variable (wishing to eat food after watching television commercial) and the independent variable (frequency of weekly food consumption). The adjusted model considered the variables gender, age, socioeconomic condition, and the mother’s educational. The significance level was set at 5% and the Confidence Interval at 95% (95%CI). The statistical package used was SPSS software, version 15.0.

RESULTS

Of the 1,011 adolescents assessed in the study, 83.3% reported food consumption while watching television. When asked their favorite food to consume, 33.2% of the sample reported eating sweets, 10.5% soft drinks, 11.1% snacks, and 6.0% fast foods. Among healthy food consumption, 10.1% of the adolescents reported fruits as their favorite food, while only 6.7% and 5.7% preferred dairy or vegetable, respectively (p ≤ 0.001).

We observed the following prevalence of food patterns in adolescents: I. 16.5% of adolescents reported no food consumption when watching TV; II. 60.9% of adolescents reported unhealthy food consumption (sweets, soft drinks, snacks, and fast foods) when watching TV; and III. 22.6% of adolescents reported healthy food consumption (fruits, dairy products, and vegetables) when watching TV (p-value ≤ 0.001). Around 20% of the sample reported food consumption five days a week while watching TV and 55% on both days of the weekend.

Table 1 shows the characteristics of the sample stratified by the consumption of food during the time watching television. When compared, the groups showed differences in age, height, and body mass. Regarding the frequency of weekly food intake, the adolescents who do not consume food while watching TV had a higher weekly consumption of fruits and vegetables, while those who consumed food while watching TV had a higher weekly consumption of fried foods, sweets, soft drinks, and snacks.

A total of 73.9% of adolescents answered that food advertisements left them wishing to eat the advertised foods and 26.1% answered negatively (p-value ≤ 0.001). The Figure shows the kinds of food they wished to eat, with a prevalence of sweets and fast food, and vegetables as the least mentioned (p-value ≤ 0.001).

Both the crude and adjusted analysis of the association between the wish to eat food after seeing it on TV advertisements and the kinds of foods, showed significant associations for the greater consumption of fried foods, sweets, soft drinks, and snacks (Table 2). Adolescents who reported wanting to eat food after seeing TV advertisements were 36% more likely to present high consumption of fried foods, 69% more likely to have a high intake of sweets, and 57% more likely to present high consumption of snacks (Table 3).

DISCUSSION

This study observed that adolescents reported consuming energy-dense foods when watching television, most commonly fried foods, sweets, soft drinks, and snacks. The most desired foods to eat after seeing in TV advertisements were sweets and fast foods. Adolescents who reported wishing to eat the food after watching advertisements had higher chances of consuming fried foods, sweets and snacks-36%, 69% and 57%, respectively.

Previous studies found that fruits and vegetables intake has an inverse association with watching TV¹⁸18. Boynton-Jarret R, Thomas TN, Peterson KE, Wiecha J, Sobol AM, Gortmaker SL. Impact of television viewing patterns on fruit and vegetable consumption among adolescents. Pediatrics. 2003;112(6 Pt 1):1321-6. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.112.6.1321
https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.112.6.1321... , while watching TV for at least 2 hours a day leads to high energetic drink and salty snacks consumption¹⁹19. Salmon J, Campbell KJ, Crawford DA. Television viewing habits associated with obesity risk factors: a survey of Melbourne schoolchildren. Med J Aust. 2006;184(2):64-7. https://doi.org/10.5694/j.1326-5377.2006.tb00117.x
https://doi.org/10.5694/j.1326-5377.2006... ; findings corroborate those of the present study. A study warned about the observed changes in the eating habits of young Brazilians, such as increases in the intake of meat, milk, and dairy products which are rich in fats; elevation of the already excessive consumption of refined sugar and soda; and the reduction in fruits and vegetables consumption²⁰20. Monteiro CA, Mondini L, Costa RBL. Mudanças na composição e adequação nutricional da dieta familiar nas áreas metropolitanas do Brasil (1988-1996). Rev Saude Publica. 2000;34(3):251-8. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0034-89102000000300007
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0034-8910200000... . Increased caloric intake is associated with the habit of watching television, due to the high intake of foods that are dense in energy and low in nutrients²¹21. Davison KK, Marshall SJ, Birch LL. Cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between TV viewing and girls’ body mass index, overweight status, and percentage of body fat. J Pediatr. 2006;149(1):32-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2006.02.003
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2006.02.... .

A study suggested the theory of cultivation as the likely cause of TV advertisement influencing young people’s food preferences²²22. Keller SK, Schulz PJ. Distorted food pyramid in kids programmes: a content analysis of television advertising watched in Switzerland. Eur J Public Health. 2010;21(3):300-5. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckq065
https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckq065... : advertising reduces the likelihood of individuals recognizing unhealthy behaviors, which remain unchanged²³23. Gerbner G, Gross L, Morgan M, Signorielli N, Shanahan J. Growing up with television: cultivation processes. In: Bryant J, Zillm D, editors. Media effects: advances in theory and research. 2. ed. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 2002. p.43-67..

The present study revealed that the association between the habit of watching TV and unhealthy food consumption in school-aged is a reality in the country. A possible factor justifying those results is the ability of TV advertisements to stimulate food consumption in this population, even if they are not hungry²⁴24. Blass EM, Anderson DR, Kirkorian HL, Pempek TA, Price I, Koleini MF. On the road to obesity: television viewing increases intake of high-density foods. Physiol Behav. 2006;88(4-5):597-604. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2006.05.035
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2006.0... , inducing them to ignore satiety, and increasing their propensity for food intake²⁵25. Wansink B, Park SB. At the movies: how external cues and perceived taste impact consumption volume. Food Qual Prefer. 2001;12(1):69-74. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0950-3293(00)00031-8
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0950-3293(00)00... .

Environmental factors can also direct choices around specific products of low nutritional values and high levels of fats and sugars, while fruits and vegetables lack the same emphatical advertisements²⁶26. Chapman K, Nicholas P, Supramanian R. How much food advertising is there on Australia television? Health Promot Int. 2006;21(3):172-80. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/dal021
https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/dal021... . The high cost of healthier diets can also contribute to obesity among low-income groups, since the limitation of financial resources constitute an important reason why people do not eat healthy²⁷27. Darmon N, Ferguson EL, Briend A. Do economic constraints encourage the selection of energy dense diets? Appetite. 2003;41(3):315-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0195-6663(03)00113-2
https://doi.org/10.1016/s0195-6663(03)00... . European studies support this statement: in the United Kingdom fruits and vegetables consumption were related to diet higher costs²⁸28. Drewnowski A. Fat and sugar: an economic analysis. J Nutr. 2003;133(3):838S-40S. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/133.3.838S
https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/133.3.838S... ; in Denmark, low-fat diets for children were associated with higher costs²⁹29. Stender S, Skovby F, Haraldsdóttir J, Andresen GR, Michaelsen KF, Nielsen BS, et al. Cholesterol-lowering diets may increase the food costs for Danish children: a cross-sectional study of food costs for Danish children with and without familial hypercholesterolaemia. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1993;47(11):776-86.. Thus, family eating habits influences healthy or unhealthy eating behavior in adolescents³⁰30. Christofaro DGD, Tebar WR, Mota J, Fernandes RA, Scarabottolo CC, Saraiva BTC, et al. Gender analyses of Brazilian parental eating and activity with their adolescents’ eating habits. J Nutr Educ Behav. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2019.09.015
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2019.09.0... .

This study advances in literature with the analysis between food requests by young people and television advertisements adjusted for possible confounding factors, like gender, age, socioeconomic condition, and the parents education level. Thus, adolescents with low socioeconomic level show low consumption of many nutritive foods like fruits, vegetables and dairy foods³¹31. Abudayya AH, Stigum H, Shi Z, Abed Y, Holmboe-Ottesen G. Sociodemographic correlates of food habits among school adolescents (12–15 year) in North Gaza Strip. BMC Public Health. 2009;9:185. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-9-185
https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-9-185... . Consumption of unhealthy foods among adolescents was associated with mothers with more than 9 years of schooling³²32. Barreto Neto AC, Andrade MIS, Lima VLM, Diniz AS. Body weight and food consumption scores in adolescents from northeast Brazil. Rev Paul Pediatr. 2015;33(3):318-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rpped.2015.01.002
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rpped.2015.01.... . Socioeconomic status was the only predictor associated with daily meal patterns in adolescents³³33. El-Gilany AH, Elkhawaga G. Socioeconomic determinants of eating pattern of adolescent students in Mansoura, Egypt. Pan Afr Med J. 2012;13:22.. Concerning gender, girls reported eating vegetables and fruits more frequently than boys³⁴34. Arechavala T, Continente X, Pérez-Giménez A, Bartoll X, Sánchez-Martínez F, López MJ. Food consumption frequency and excess body weight in adolescents in the context of financial crisis in Barcelona (Spain). Gac Sanit. 2016;30(6):457-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaceta.2016.03.013
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaceta.2016.03... .

The cross-sectional design, precluding cause-effect inferences, and the self-reported assessment of the variables limited this study. Food advertisements in other screen devices (computer, mobile phones, and tablets) were not assessed in the present study, since the screen time in these devices has already been associated to unhealthy eating habits in adolescents³⁵35. Delfino LD, Silva DAS, Tebar WR, Zanuto EF, Codogno JS, Fernandes RA, et al. Screen time by different devices in adolescents: association with physical inactivity domains and eating habits. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2018;58(3):318-25. https://doi.org/10.23736/S0022-4707.17.06980-8
https://doi.org/10.23736/S0022-4707.17.0... . This study also lacked the assessment of types and frequency of TV food advertisements, which could help infer whether specific types of food were more frequent or more efficient in their message.

An important aspect of the study was the randomly selected sample in a developing country and the analyses controlled by confounding factors, minimizing possible biases. It also considered not only the association between screen time and weekly food consumption, but verified which kinds of food in advertisements may be associated with greater consumption. Future studies should examine food advertisements inserted between episodes of TV programs, which may contribute to better understand the intake of energy-dense foods in adolescents during television time. Another important question is whether adolescents from families with healthy habits are less susceptible to advertisements.

In conclusion, we observed a strong association between television commercials and consumption of energy-dense food. Health promotion actions should target reducing screen time and investing in advertisements for healthier foods, or at least reducing advertisements of foods rich in fat and sugar, from the early ages, since this problem affects younger populations.

REFERENCES

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