Abstract

The lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) population has long been excluded, a reality produced by social marginalization, which is still present in today’s society. This article aims to present a quantitative profile of LGBT homicides, focusing on the crimes, victims, and perpetrators. We conducted a systematic review of quantitative studies on LGBT homicide using the following databases: PubMed Central (Medline), Latin American and Caribbean Center for Health Sciences Information (LILACS), Embase (Elsevier), Scopus (Elsevier), the Virtual Health Library (BVS), and APA PsycNet. The searches were run using terms taken from the Medical Subject Headings (MESHs) and Health Sciences Descriptors (DeCS - BVS). Sixteen studies were included. Homicides tended to involve a single victim and single perpetrator and occur at the victim’s residence or in public locations. Victims were more likely to be older than the perpetrator and offenders were usually unknown to the victim. Transgender people were the most affected group and most of the victims in this group were aged under 30 years. The findings of this review confirm that LGBT homicides may be considered “hate crimes” and that victims are generally killed with firearms or non-firearms, beaten to death or suffocated.

Key words:
Sexual and gender minorities; Homicide; Homophobia; Systematic review

Introduction

Gender identity and sexual orientation have been the subject of studies aimed at stimulating discussion to help tackle intolerance against the LGBT population. However, few international studies discuss lethal violence against LGBT people, more specifically homicide, which is a serious public health problem¹1 Lombardi EL, Wilchins RA, Priesing D, Malouf D. Gender Violence: Transgender Experiences with Violence and Discrimination. J Homosex 2002; 26; 42(1):89-101.. Widely used in international literature, the term transgender is used for transvestites, transgender men and women, and others who do not fit into the gender binary, including non-binary and intersexual people²2 Money J, Ehrhardt AA. Man and woman, boy and girl: Differentiation and dimorphism of gender identity from conception to maturity. Oxford, England: Johns Hopkins U. Press; 1972. 311 p..

While the concept of homophobia means an arbitrary manifestation that consists of designating the other as contrary, inferior or abnormal³3 Borrillo D. Homofobia - história e crítica de um preconceito. Belo Horizonte: Autêntica; 2015. 141 p. restricted to lesbians, gays and bisexuals, so-called “hate crimes” also represent manifestations of discrimination, fear or hatred based on gender identity known as transphobia. However, the neologism currently used by the international LGBT movement is “LGBTphobia”, encompassing homophobia, lesbophobia, biphobia, and transphobia, which by definition means that victims are chosen because they are or perceived to be LGBT⁴4 Balloni A, Sette R, editors. Handbook of Research on Trends and Issues in Crime Prevention, Rehabilitation, and Victim Support. Pennsylvania: IGI Global; 2020.^,55 Osce-Odihr, editor. Combating hate crimes in the OSCE region: an overview of statistics, legislation and national initiatives. Warsaw: ODIHR; 2005. 158 p..

In 2019, 55 countries did not protect against violence and discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity. In two of these countries (Egypt and Iraque), being LGBT was a crime. Being LGBT was punishable by up to eight years imprisonment in 30 countries, by 10 years to life imprisonment in 26 countries, and by the death penalty in six countries (Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Iran, Nigeria, Somalia, and Sudan). It is worth highlighting that in several of these countries the laws are based on religious beliefs and underpinned by the civil code⁶6 ILGA. State Sponsored Homophobia 2017: A world survey of sexual orientation laws: criminalisation, protection and recognition [Internet]. Geneva, Switzerland: International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association (ILGA); 2019. [cited 2019 Mar 30]. Available from: http://ilga.org/downloads/2017/ILGA_State_Sponsored_Homophobia_2017_WEB.pdf
http://ilga.org/downloads/2017/ILGA_Stat... .

Of the countries that recognize the rights of LGBT people, 123 permit same-sex relationships, 58 recognize and provide for same-sex marriage (27 countries) or civil union (31 countries), and 27 recognize homoparental families and permit adoption by same-sex couples. However, many countries do not have specific legislation on these questions and only 36 recognize transgender rights⁶6 ILGA. State Sponsored Homophobia 2017: A world survey of sexual orientation laws: criminalisation, protection and recognition [Internet]. Geneva, Switzerland: International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association (ILGA); 2019. [cited 2019 Mar 30]. Available from: http://ilga.org/downloads/2017/ILGA_State_Sponsored_Homophobia_2017_WEB.pdf
http://ilga.org/downloads/2017/ILGA_Stat... ^,77 ILGA. Maps - Sexual orientation laws [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2019 Mar 30]. Available from: https://ilga.org/maps-sexual-orientation-laws
https://ilga.org/maps-sexual-orientation... .

Transgender Europe (TGEU), a network of different organizations working to combat discrimination, reported 3,314 killings of transgender people in 74 countries between January 2008 and September 2019, 61% which were of sex workers. In the United States, 90% of murdered transgender people were black or Native Americans, while in France, Italy, Portugal, and Spain, 65% of the victims were migrants from Africa and Latin America. A total of 331 killings were reported worldwide between October 2018 and September 2019, the majority of which occurred in Brazil (130), followed by Mexico (63) and the United States (30)⁸8 Transgender Europe (TGEU). TMM Update Trans Day of Remembrance 2019 [Internet]. Berlin, Germany: Transgender Europe (TGEU); 2019 [cited 2019 Mar 30] p. 74. Available from: https://transrespect.org/en/tmm-update-trans-day-of-remembrance-2018/
https://transrespect.org/en/tmm-update-t... . It is important to highlight that there are no official statistics on murders of gays and lesbians provided by international social and health organizations.

At the time of data collection for this systematic review, international studies examining the prevalence and characteristics of LGBT homicides were scarce, limiting their utility and generalizability. This is partially due to the underreporting of cases because of a general lack of evidence of homophobia in homicide cases. This, together with the fact that the identity of the perpetrator is often unknown or the victim is not necessarily recognized as being LGBT, makes it difficult to prove homophobia in these crimes⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032.^,1010 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623.. In addition, penal systems around the world are not yet prepared to identify, investigate and judge anti-LGBT homicide⁶6 ILGA. State Sponsored Homophobia 2017: A world survey of sexual orientation laws: criminalisation, protection and recognition [Internet]. Geneva, Switzerland: International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association (ILGA); 2019. [cited 2019 Mar 30]. Available from: http://ilga.org/downloads/2017/ILGA_State_Sponsored_Homophobia_2017_WEB.pdf
http://ilga.org/downloads/2017/ILGA_Stat... ^,88 Transgender Europe (TGEU). TMM Update Trans Day of Remembrance 2019 [Internet]. Berlin, Germany: Transgender Europe (TGEU); 2019 [cited 2019 Mar 30] p. 74. Available from: https://transrespect.org/en/tmm-update-trans-day-of-remembrance-2018/
https://transrespect.org/en/tmm-update-t... ^,1111 Mott L, Michels E. Relatório 2018: Assassinatos de LGBT no Brasil [Internet]. Brasil: Grupo Gay da Bahia - GGB; 2019 [cited 2017 May 1] p. 25. Available from: https://homofobiamata.files.wordpress.com/2017/01/relatc3b3rio-2016-ps.pdf.

This aim of this study was to conduct a systemic review of the literature on LGBT homicides and present a quantitative profile of the crimes, victims and perpetrators. In doing so, it seeks to raise the visibility of anti-LGBT homicide, contribute to the debate on this issue in the field of public health, and raise awareness of the needs of this group in order to fill gaps in public policies designed to protect LGBT people, who, with their vulnerable bodies and lives, continue to be exposed to unbearable and inhuman vulnerability¹²12 Butler J. Vida precária: os poderes do luto e da violência. Belo Horizonte: Autêntica; 2019. 189 p., even in countries where sexual and gender dissidence is not criminalized¹³13 Colling L, editor. Dissidências sexuais e de gênero. Salvador: Edufba; 2016. 240 p..

Methods

This systematic review was undertaken in accordance with the protocol registered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) on 22/12/2016 and updated on 27/07/2020 (registration number CRD42016053977). The protocol is available at https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.asp?ID=CRD42016053977. The study stages and writing of this article followed the recommendations of the PRISMA Statement¹⁴14 Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG, PRISMA G. Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses: The PRISMA Statement. PLoS Med 2009 21; 6(7):e1000097..

We used the qualitative PEO (patient, exposure, outcome) framework adapted for quantitative studies to select the research evidence¹⁵15 Bettany-Saltikov J. Learning how to undertake a systematic review: part 1. Nurs Stand 2010; 24(50):47-55.^,1616 Khan KS, editor. Systematic reviews to support evidence-based medicine: how to review and apply findings of healthcare research. 2nd ed. London: Hodder Annold; 2011. 201 p., where “P” was the world LGBT population, “E” was being a LGBT individual, and “O” was “death by homicide”.

We included only epidemiological studies with quantitative descriptive observational designs (cross-sectional and ecological studies) describing LGBT homicide, regardless of whether or not the crimes were motivated by homophobia. We selected articles and other scientific literature, including gray literature (non-conventional and commercial literature that has not gone through peer review) without any date of publication or language restrictions.

The first exclusion criterion was LGBT suicide, as the study topic was limited to LGBT homicide. The second criterion was studies addressing a specific age group (for example, young people, adults and older people), since these studies only document homicides in a specific segment of the population. The third exclusion criterion was exclusively qualitative studies, since our objective was to present a quantitative profile of LGBT homicide.

The literature search was undertaken using the following databases: PubMed Central (Medline), Latin American and Caribbean Center for Health Sciences Information (LILACS), Embase (Elsevier), Scopus (Elsevier), the Virtual Health Library (BVS), and APA PsycNET. The last update search was run on June 30, 2019.

The search strategy was developed with the help of a specialist librarian (MFMM). A comprehensive search was performed using the following terms in English, Portuguese and Spanish taken from the Medical Subject Headings (MESHs) and Health Sciences Descriptors (DeCS - BVS)¹⁷17 Pellizzon RF. Pesquisa na área da saúde: 1. Base de dados DeCS (Descritores em Ciências da Saúde). Acta Cir Bras 2004; 19(2):153-163.: “homophobia”, “sexism”, “bisexuality”, “homosexuality”, “gay”, “lesbian”, “LGBT”, “queer”, “transgender persons”, “transsexualism”, “transvestism”, “crime”, “criminology”, “homicide”, “murder”, and “victims”. It is important to mention that DeCS - BVS does not include “transphobia” and therefore this term is encompassed by the other terms. Due to the size of the database archives, the searchers were limited to type of publication (articles, conference proceedings, short communications, reports, dissertations, and theses). Searches were also undertaken of the gray literature¹⁸18 Conn VS, Valentine JC, Cooper HM, Rantz MJ. Grey Literature in Meta-Analyses. Nurs Res 2003; 52(4): 256-261. using the Brazilian Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (BDTD), Google Scholar (International), OpenGrey (Europe), and the National Technical Information Service (United States). We also searched the cross-references of the selected publications to identify new relevant publications.

The identified publications (including those found in the gray literature and cross-reference searches) were inputted into Zotero 5.0.88 after removing duplicates and sent to the first two authors (Set 1) for title/abstract screening using “yes”/“no” answers. Disagreements over the inclusion of publications were decided by the fourth author. The full texts of the selected publications (Set 2) were assessed for eligibility by the first two authors using the above exclusion criteria. Disagreements over the inclusion of publications were decided by the fourth author. The included publications (Set 3) were examined by the first two authors, who extracted the following information: title, authors, year of publication, study location, study period, study sample or population size, victims’ gender identity or sexual orientation, data sources, and main findings. This information was reviewed by the third and fourth authors.

Study quality was assessed using the Guidelines for Critically Appraising Studies of Prevalence or Incidence of a Health Problem (the Loney criteria)¹⁹19 Loney PL, Chambers LW, Bennett KJ, Roberts JG, Stratford PW. Critical appraisal of the health research literature: prevalence or incidence of a health problem. Chronic Dis Can 1998;19(4):170-176.. The guidelines consist of eight questions designed to evaluate study adequacy and quality considering the validity of study methods and results interpretation and applicability. The assessment was undertaken independently by the first two authors. Overall agreement between the reviewers was 87.5%. Disagreements were resolved by consensus with the third and fourth perpetrators.

We extracted the homicide data (means and percentages) from the publications, weighting the means according to sample size, where the larger the sample the greater the weight of the results.

Results

The searches returned 702 records: 650 from the systematic searches (SS) of the electronic databases and 52 from the searches of other sources (gray literature - GL). After the duplicates were removed, 408 records remained (356 from the electronic databases and 52 from the gray literature). A total of 374 studies were excluded after screening, resulting in 34 publications. Eighteen of these publications were excluded after assessment for eligibility, resulting in 16 studies included in the final review. The publications were excluded for the following reasons: they adopted a purely qualitative design (discussions of/reflections upon the topic); they were not scientific (newspaper or electronic magazines articles); they were reports that had already been published as scientific articles; they focused on a specific victim/perpetrator age group; they focused on crimes committed by intimate partners and non-lethal crimes. The study selection process is detailed in Figure 1.

The main results of the selected studies are shown in Table 1.

Ten of the studies described the characteristics of the crimes, victims and perpetrators⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032.^,1010 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623.^,2020 Bartlett P. Killing gay men, 1976-2001. Br J Criminol 2007; 47(4):573-595.

21 Boivin RR. Características y factores de la violencia homicida contra las minorías sexuales en la Ciudad de México, 1995-2013. Sex Salud Soc Rio J. 2016; (23):22-57.

22 Gruenewald J, Kelley K. Exploring Anti-LGBT Homicide by Mode of Victim Selection. Crim Justice Behav 2014; 41(9):1130-1152.

23 Kelley KK. A Mixed-Method Examination of HomicidesTargeting LGBT Individuals in the United States [these]. Arkansas: University of Arkansas; 2013.

24 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000.

25 Oliveira JMD. Desejo, preconceito e morte: assassinatos de LGBT em Sergipe - 1980 a 2010. [tese.] Natal: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte; 2012.Prunas A, Clerici CA, Gentile G, Muccino E, Veneroni L, Zoja R. Transphobic Murders in Italy: An Overview of Homicides in Milan (Italy) in the Past Two Decades (1993-2012). J Interpers Violence 2015; 30(16):2872-2885.

26 Tomsen S. Victims, perpetrators and fatal scenarios: a research note on anti-homosexual male homicides. Int Rev Vict 2002; 9(3):253-271.^-2727 Bell JG, Perry B. Outside looking in: the community impacts of anti-lesbian, gay, and bisexual hate crime. J Homosex 2015; 62(1):98-120., five addressed the characteristics of the crimes and the victims ¹¹11 Mott L, Michels E. Relatório 2018: Assassinatos de LGBT no Brasil [Internet]. Brasil: Grupo Gay da Bahia - GGB; 2019 [cited 2017 May 1] p. 25. Available from: https://homofobiamata.files.wordpress.com/2017/01/relatc3b3rio-2016-ps.pdf^,2828 Carrara S, Vianna ARB. "Tá lá o corpo estendido no chão...": a violência letal contra travestis no município do Rio de Janeiro. Physis Rio J 2006; 16(2):233-249.

29 Granados JA, Delgado G. Mortality by homicide in homosexuals: characterization of the cases registered in Mexico between 1995 and 2000. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2008; 29(1):43-48.

30 Mercado Mondragon J. Intolerance toward Sexuality Diversity and Homophobic Crimes. A Sociological Analysis. Sociologica 2009; 24(69):123-156.^-3131 Waters E, Jindasurat C, Wolfe C. A report from the National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and hiv-affected hate violence in 2015 - 2016 release edition [Internet]. New York, NY: Arcus Foundation; 2016 [cited 2016 Sep 11] p. 90. Available from: http://www.avp.org/storage/documents/ncavp_hvreport_2015_final.pdf, and one focused specifically on the victims³²32 Mendes WG, Silva CMFP. Homicídios da População de Lésbicas, Gays, Bissexuais, Travestis, Transexuais ou Transgêneros (LGBT) no Brasil: uma Análise Espacial. Cien Saude Colet 2020; 25(5):1709-1722.. Fourteen of the studies were time-series ecological studies ⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032.^,1010 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623.^,2020 Bartlett P. Killing gay men, 1976-2001. Br J Criminol 2007; 47(4):573-595.

21 Boivin RR. Características y factores de la violencia homicida contra las minorías sexuales en la Ciudad de México, 1995-2013. Sex Salud Soc Rio J. 2016; (23):22-57.

22 Gruenewald J, Kelley K. Exploring Anti-LGBT Homicide by Mode of Victim Selection. Crim Justice Behav 2014; 41(9):1130-1152.

23 Kelley KK. A Mixed-Method Examination of HomicidesTargeting LGBT Individuals in the United States [these]. Arkansas: University of Arkansas; 2013.

24 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000.

25 Oliveira JMD. Desejo, preconceito e morte: assassinatos de LGBT em Sergipe - 1980 a 2010. [tese.] Natal: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte; 2012.Prunas A, Clerici CA, Gentile G, Muccino E, Veneroni L, Zoja R. Transphobic Murders in Italy: An Overview of Homicides in Milan (Italy) in the Past Two Decades (1993-2012). J Interpers Violence 2015; 30(16):2872-2885.

26 Tomsen S. Victims, perpetrators and fatal scenarios: a research note on anti-homosexual male homicides. Int Rev Vict 2002; 9(3):253-271.

27 Bell JG, Perry B. Outside looking in: the community impacts of anti-lesbian, gay, and bisexual hate crime. J Homosex 2015; 62(1):98-120.

28 Carrara S, Vianna ARB. "Tá lá o corpo estendido no chão...": a violência letal contra travestis no município do Rio de Janeiro. Physis Rio J 2006; 16(2):233-249.

29 Granados JA, Delgado G. Mortality by homicide in homosexuals: characterization of the cases registered in Mexico between 1995 and 2000. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2008; 29(1):43-48.

30 Mercado Mondragon J. Intolerance toward Sexuality Diversity and Homophobic Crimes. A Sociological Analysis. Sociologica 2009; 24(69):123-156.^-3131 Waters E, Jindasurat C, Wolfe C. A report from the National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and hiv-affected hate violence in 2015 - 2016 release edition [Internet]. New York, NY: Arcus Foundation; 2016 [cited 2016 Sep 11] p. 90. Available from: http://www.avp.org/storage/documents/ncavp_hvreport_2015_final.pdf and two were cross-sectional¹¹11 Mott L, Michels E. Relatório 2018: Assassinatos de LGBT no Brasil [Internet]. Brasil: Grupo Gay da Bahia - GGB; 2019 [cited 2017 May 1] p. 25. Available from: https://homofobiamata.files.wordpress.com/2017/01/relatc3b3rio-2016-ps.pdf^,3232 Mendes WG, Silva CMFP. Homicídios da População de Lésbicas, Gays, Bissexuais, Travestis, Transexuais ou Transgêneros (LGBT) no Brasil: uma Análise Espacial. Cien Saude Colet 2020; 25(5):1709-1722.. The studies were conducted in six different countries across different continents with different cultures and contextual factors: the United States (six)⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032.^,1010 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623.^,2222 Gruenewald J, Kelley K. Exploring Anti-LGBT Homicide by Mode of Victim Selection. Crim Justice Behav 2014; 41(9):1130-1152.^,2323 Kelley KK. A Mixed-Method Examination of HomicidesTargeting LGBT Individuals in the United States [these]. Arkansas: University of Arkansas; 2013.^,2828 Carrara S, Vianna ARB. "Tá lá o corpo estendido no chão...": a violência letal contra travestis no município do Rio de Janeiro. Physis Rio J 2006; 16(2):233-249.^,3232 Mendes WG, Silva CMFP. Homicídios da População de Lésbicas, Gays, Bissexuais, Travestis, Transexuais ou Transgêneros (LGBT) no Brasil: uma Análise Espacial. Cien Saude Colet 2020; 25(5):1709-1722., Brazil (three)¹¹11 Mott L, Michels E. Relatório 2018: Assassinatos de LGBT no Brasil [Internet]. Brasil: Grupo Gay da Bahia - GGB; 2019 [cited 2017 May 1] p. 25. Available from: https://homofobiamata.files.wordpress.com/2017/01/relatc3b3rio-2016-ps.pdf^,2525 Oliveira JMD. Desejo, preconceito e morte: assassinatos de LGBT em Sergipe - 1980 a 2010. [tese.] Natal: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte; 2012.Prunas A, Clerici CA, Gentile G, Muccino E, Veneroni L, Zoja R. Transphobic Murders in Italy: An Overview of Homicides in Milan (Italy) in the Past Two Decades (1993-2012). J Interpers Violence 2015; 30(16):2872-2885.^,2929 Granados JA, Delgado G. Mortality by homicide in homosexuals: characterization of the cases registered in Mexico between 1995 and 2000. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2008; 29(1):43-48., Mexico (three)²¹21 Boivin RR. Características y factores de la violencia homicida contra las minorías sexuales en la Ciudad de México, 1995-2013. Sex Salud Soc Rio J. 2016; (23):22-57.^,3030 Mercado Mondragon J. Intolerance toward Sexuality Diversity and Homophobic Crimes. A Sociological Analysis. Sociologica 2009; 24(69):123-156.^,3131 Waters E, Jindasurat C, Wolfe C. A report from the National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and hiv-affected hate violence in 2015 - 2016 release edition [Internet]. New York, NY: Arcus Foundation; 2016 [cited 2016 Sep 11] p. 90. Available from: http://www.avp.org/storage/documents/ncavp_hvreport_2015_final.pdf, Australia (two)²⁴24 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000.^,2727 Bell JG, Perry B. Outside looking in: the community impacts of anti-lesbian, gay, and bisexual hate crime. J Homosex 2015; 62(1):98-120., Italy (one)²⁶26 Tomsen S. Victims, perpetrators and fatal scenarios: a research note on anti-homosexual male homicides. Int Rev Vict 2002; 9(3):253-271., and England/Wales (one)²⁰20 Bartlett P. Killing gay men, 1976-2001. Br J Criminol 2007; 47(4):573-595..

The studies reported 2,921 LGBT homicides, with numbers in individual studies ranging from 20²⁶26 Tomsen S. Victims, perpetrators and fatal scenarios: a research note on anti-homosexual male homicides. Int Rev Vict 2002; 9(3):253-271. to 945⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032.. It is important to highlight, however, that few studies reported cases of homicides with clear evidence of homophobia. Study periods varied between one¹¹11 Mott L, Michels E. Relatório 2018: Assassinatos de LGBT no Brasil [Internet]. Brasil: Grupo Gay da Bahia - GGB; 2019 [cited 2017 May 1] p. 25. Available from: https://homofobiamata.files.wordpress.com/2017/01/relatc3b3rio-2016-ps.pdf^,3232 Mendes WG, Silva CMFP. Homicídios da População de Lésbicas, Gays, Bissexuais, Travestis, Transexuais ou Transgêneros (LGBT) no Brasil: uma Análise Espacial. Cien Saude Colet 2020; 25(5):1709-1722. and 30 years²²22 Gruenewald J, Kelley K. Exploring Anti-LGBT Homicide by Mode of Victim Selection. Crim Justice Behav 2014; 41(9):1130-1152..

Although the search did not employ language restrictions, the studies were written in only three different languages: English (11)⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032.^,1010 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623.^,2020 Bartlett P. Killing gay men, 1976-2001. Br J Criminol 2007; 47(4):573-595.^,2222 Gruenewald J, Kelley K. Exploring Anti-LGBT Homicide by Mode of Victim Selection. Crim Justice Behav 2014; 41(9):1130-1152.

23 Kelley KK. A Mixed-Method Examination of HomicidesTargeting LGBT Individuals in the United States [these]. Arkansas: University of Arkansas; 2013.^-2424 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000.^,2626 Tomsen S. Victims, perpetrators and fatal scenarios: a research note on anti-homosexual male homicides. Int Rev Vict 2002; 9(3):253-271.

27 Bell JG, Perry B. Outside looking in: the community impacts of anti-lesbian, gay, and bisexual hate crime. J Homosex 2015; 62(1):98-120.^-2828 Carrara S, Vianna ARB. "Tá lá o corpo estendido no chão...": a violência letal contra travestis no município do Rio de Janeiro. Physis Rio J 2006; 16(2):233-249.^,3030 Mercado Mondragon J. Intolerance toward Sexuality Diversity and Homophobic Crimes. A Sociological Analysis. Sociologica 2009; 24(69):123-156.^,3232 Mendes WG, Silva CMFP. Homicídios da População de Lésbicas, Gays, Bissexuais, Travestis, Transexuais ou Transgêneros (LGBT) no Brasil: uma Análise Espacial. Cien Saude Colet 2020; 25(5):1709-1722., Portuguese (three)¹¹11 Mott L, Michels E. Relatório 2018: Assassinatos de LGBT no Brasil [Internet]. Brasil: Grupo Gay da Bahia - GGB; 2019 [cited 2017 May 1] p. 25. Available from: https://homofobiamata.files.wordpress.com/2017/01/relatc3b3rio-2016-ps.pdf^,2525 Oliveira JMD. Desejo, preconceito e morte: assassinatos de LGBT em Sergipe - 1980 a 2010. [tese.] Natal: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte; 2012.Prunas A, Clerici CA, Gentile G, Muccino E, Veneroni L, Zoja R. Transphobic Murders in Italy: An Overview of Homicides in Milan (Italy) in the Past Two Decades (1993-2012). J Interpers Violence 2015; 30(16):2872-2885.^,2929 Granados JA, Delgado G. Mortality by homicide in homosexuals: characterization of the cases registered in Mexico between 1995 and 2000. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2008; 29(1):43-48., and Spanish (two)²¹21 Boivin RR. Características y factores de la violencia homicida contra las minorías sexuales en la Ciudad de México, 1995-2013. Sex Salud Soc Rio J. 2016; (23):22-57.^,3131 Waters E, Jindasurat C, Wolfe C. A report from the National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and hiv-affected hate violence in 2015 - 2016 release edition [Internet]. New York, NY: Arcus Foundation; 2016 [cited 2016 Sep 11] p. 90. Available from: http://www.avp.org/storage/documents/ncavp_hvreport_2015_final.pdf.

The studies employed the following statistical methods: descriptive statistics (16)⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032.

10 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623.^-1111 Mott L, Michels E. Relatório 2018: Assassinatos de LGBT no Brasil [Internet]. Brasil: Grupo Gay da Bahia - GGB; 2019 [cited 2017 May 1] p. 25. Available from: https://homofobiamata.files.wordpress.com/2017/01/relatc3b3rio-2016-ps.pdf^,2020 Bartlett P. Killing gay men, 1976-2001. Br J Criminol 2007; 47(4):573-595.

21 Boivin RR. Características y factores de la violencia homicida contra las minorías sexuales en la Ciudad de México, 1995-2013. Sex Salud Soc Rio J. 2016; (23):22-57.

22 Gruenewald J, Kelley K. Exploring Anti-LGBT Homicide by Mode of Victim Selection. Crim Justice Behav 2014; 41(9):1130-1152.

23 Kelley KK. A Mixed-Method Examination of HomicidesTargeting LGBT Individuals in the United States [these]. Arkansas: University of Arkansas; 2013.

24 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000.

25 Oliveira JMD. Desejo, preconceito e morte: assassinatos de LGBT em Sergipe - 1980 a 2010. [tese.] Natal: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte; 2012.Prunas A, Clerici CA, Gentile G, Muccino E, Veneroni L, Zoja R. Transphobic Murders in Italy: An Overview of Homicides in Milan (Italy) in the Past Two Decades (1993-2012). J Interpers Violence 2015; 30(16):2872-2885.

26 Tomsen S. Victims, perpetrators and fatal scenarios: a research note on anti-homosexual male homicides. Int Rev Vict 2002; 9(3):253-271.

27 Bell JG, Perry B. Outside looking in: the community impacts of anti-lesbian, gay, and bisexual hate crime. J Homosex 2015; 62(1):98-120.

28 Carrara S, Vianna ARB. "Tá lá o corpo estendido no chão...": a violência letal contra travestis no município do Rio de Janeiro. Physis Rio J 2006; 16(2):233-249.

29 Granados JA, Delgado G. Mortality by homicide in homosexuals: characterization of the cases registered in Mexico between 1995 and 2000. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2008; 29(1):43-48.

30 Mercado Mondragon J. Intolerance toward Sexuality Diversity and Homophobic Crimes. A Sociological Analysis. Sociologica 2009; 24(69):123-156.

31 Waters E, Jindasurat C, Wolfe C. A report from the National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and hiv-affected hate violence in 2015 - 2016 release edition [Internet]. New York, NY: Arcus Foundation; 2016 [cited 2016 Sep 11] p. 90. Available from: http://www.avp.org/storage/documents/ncavp_hvreport_2015_final.pdf^-3232 Mendes WG, Silva CMFP. Homicídios da População de Lésbicas, Gays, Bissexuais, Travestis, Transexuais ou Transgêneros (LGBT) no Brasil: uma Análise Espacial. Cien Saude Colet 2020; 25(5):1709-1722., logistic regression (three)⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032.^,1010 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623.^,2323 Kelley KK. A Mixed-Method Examination of HomicidesTargeting LGBT Individuals in the United States [these]. Arkansas: University of Arkansas; 2013., Fisher’s exact test (two)²²22 Gruenewald J, Kelley K. Exploring Anti-LGBT Homicide by Mode of Victim Selection. Crim Justice Behav 2014; 41(9):1130-1152.^,2828 Carrara S, Vianna ARB. "Tá lá o corpo estendido no chão...": a violência letal contra travestis no município do Rio de Janeiro. Physis Rio J 2006; 16(2):233-249., chi-squared test (one)⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032., and the Mann-Whitney test (one)²⁸28 Carrara S, Vianna ARB. "Tá lá o corpo estendido no chão...": a violência letal contra travestis no município do Rio de Janeiro. Physis Rio J 2006; 16(2):233-249..

The data presented in the publications were collected by the researchers, some of whom attempted to identify evidence of homophobia in the data sources. This evidence was obtained from government reports and non-governmental organizations or collected individually by activists, while the general homicide data were obtained mainly from newspaper articles, police reports, death records and webpage searches. The main characteristics of the crimes, victims, and perpetrators are outlined below.

Crimes

The most common places of occurrence were the victim’s residence and public locations. The percentage of homicides committed in the victim’s residence varied between 34.3%⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032. and 64.0%²⁰20 Bartlett P. Killing gay men, 1976-2001. Br J Criminol 2007; 47(4):573-595., averaging 40.5% across 10 studies⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032.^,2020 Bartlett P. Killing gay men, 1976-2001. Br J Criminol 2007; 47(4):573-595.

21 Boivin RR. Características y factores de la violencia homicida contra las minorías sexuales en la Ciudad de México, 1995-2013. Sex Salud Soc Rio J. 2016; (23):22-57.

22 Gruenewald J, Kelley K. Exploring Anti-LGBT Homicide by Mode of Victim Selection. Crim Justice Behav 2014; 41(9):1130-1152.

23 Kelley KK. A Mixed-Method Examination of HomicidesTargeting LGBT Individuals in the United States [these]. Arkansas: University of Arkansas; 2013.

24 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000.

25 Oliveira JMD. Desejo, preconceito e morte: assassinatos de LGBT em Sergipe - 1980 a 2010. [tese.] Natal: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte; 2012.Prunas A, Clerici CA, Gentile G, Muccino E, Veneroni L, Zoja R. Transphobic Murders in Italy: An Overview of Homicides in Milan (Italy) in the Past Two Decades (1993-2012). J Interpers Violence 2015; 30(16):2872-2885.

26 Tomsen S. Victims, perpetrators and fatal scenarios: a research note on anti-homosexual male homicides. Int Rev Vict 2002; 9(3):253-271.^-2727 Bell JG, Perry B. Outside looking in: the community impacts of anti-lesbian, gay, and bisexual hate crime. J Homosex 2015; 62(1):98-120.^,3131 Waters E, Jindasurat C, Wolfe C. A report from the National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and hiv-affected hate violence in 2015 - 2016 release edition [Internet]. New York, NY: Arcus Foundation; 2016 [cited 2016 Sep 11] p. 90. Available from: http://www.avp.org/storage/documents/ncavp_hvreport_2015_final.pdf, while the percentage of murders in public locations varied between 16.0%²⁰20 Bartlett P. Killing gay men, 1976-2001. Br J Criminol 2007; 47(4):573-595. and 49.0%²¹21 Boivin RR. Características y factores de la violencia homicida contra las minorías sexuales en la Ciudad de México, 1995-2013. Sex Salud Soc Rio J. 2016; (23):22-57., averaging 29.3% across eight studies⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032.^,2020 Bartlett P. Killing gay men, 1976-2001. Br J Criminol 2007; 47(4):573-595.^,2121 Boivin RR. Características y factores de la violencia homicida contra las minorías sexuales en la Ciudad de México, 1995-2013. Sex Salud Soc Rio J. 2016; (23):22-57.^,2424 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000.

25 Oliveira JMD. Desejo, preconceito e morte: assassinatos de LGBT em Sergipe - 1980 a 2010. [tese.] Natal: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte; 2012.Prunas A, Clerici CA, Gentile G, Muccino E, Veneroni L, Zoja R. Transphobic Murders in Italy: An Overview of Homicides in Milan (Italy) in the Past Two Decades (1993-2012). J Interpers Violence 2015; 30(16):2872-2885.

26 Tomsen S. Victims, perpetrators and fatal scenarios: a research note on anti-homosexual male homicides. Int Rev Vict 2002; 9(3):253-271.^-2727 Bell JG, Perry B. Outside looking in: the community impacts of anti-lesbian, gay, and bisexual hate crime. J Homosex 2015; 62(1):98-120.^,3131 Waters E, Jindasurat C, Wolfe C. A report from the National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and hiv-affected hate violence in 2015 - 2016 release edition [Internet]. New York, NY: Arcus Foundation; 2016 [cited 2016 Sep 11] p. 90. Available from: http://www.avp.org/storage/documents/ncavp_hvreport_2015_final.pdf.

With regard to the relationship between the victims and possible perpetrators, the percentage of homicides committed by friends or people known to the victim varied between 24.8%⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032. and 65.3%¹⁰10 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623., averaging 32.0% across eight studies⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032.

10 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623.^-1111 Mott L, Michels E. Relatório 2018: Assassinatos de LGBT no Brasil [Internet]. Brasil: Grupo Gay da Bahia - GGB; 2019 [cited 2017 May 1] p. 25. Available from: https://homofobiamata.files.wordpress.com/2017/01/relatc3b3rio-2016-ps.pdf^,2121 Boivin RR. Características y factores de la violencia homicida contra las minorías sexuales en la Ciudad de México, 1995-2013. Sex Salud Soc Rio J. 2016; (23):22-57.^,2323 Kelley KK. A Mixed-Method Examination of HomicidesTargeting LGBT Individuals in the United States [these]. Arkansas: University of Arkansas; 2013.^,2424 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000.^,2626 Tomsen S. Victims, perpetrators and fatal scenarios: a research note on anti-homosexual male homicides. Int Rev Vict 2002; 9(3):253-271.^,2727 Bell JG, Perry B. Outside looking in: the community impacts of anti-lesbian, gay, and bisexual hate crime. J Homosex 2015; 62(1):98-120..

The most common causes of death were stabbing, beating and shooting, although other methods such as suffocation, strangling, beating with wooden sticks, stoning, and burning to death were also mentioned. The most frequently used non-firearm for stabbings was a kitchen knife, with percentages varying between 28.7%¹⁰10 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623. and 72.7%²³23 Kelley KK. A Mixed-Method Examination of HomicidesTargeting LGBT Individuals in the United States [these]. Arkansas: University of Arkansas; 2013., averaging 44.2% across 12 studies ^{9,10,20,21,23,25-31}. The percentage of deaths by beating varied between 13.0%²⁵25 Oliveira JMD. Desejo, preconceito e morte: assassinatos de LGBT em Sergipe - 1980 a 2010. [tese.] Natal: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte; 2012.Prunas A, Clerici CA, Gentile G, Muccino E, Veneroni L, Zoja R. Transphobic Murders in Italy: An Overview of Homicides in Milan (Italy) in the Past Two Decades (1993-2012). J Interpers Violence 2015; 30(16):2872-2885. and 44.6%²⁷27 Bell JG, Perry B. Outside looking in: the community impacts of anti-lesbian, gay, and bisexual hate crime. J Homosex 2015; 62(1):98-120., averaging 29.5% across 10 studies⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032.^,1010 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623.^,2020 Bartlett P. Killing gay men, 1976-2001. Br J Criminol 2007; 47(4):573-595.^,2121 Boivin RR. Características y factores de la violencia homicida contra las minorías sexuales en la Ciudad de México, 1995-2013. Sex Salud Soc Rio J. 2016; (23):22-57.^,2525 Oliveira JMD. Desejo, preconceito e morte: assassinatos de LGBT em Sergipe - 1980 a 2010. [tese.] Natal: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte; 2012.Prunas A, Clerici CA, Gentile G, Muccino E, Veneroni L, Zoja R. Transphobic Murders in Italy: An Overview of Homicides in Milan (Italy) in the Past Two Decades (1993-2012). J Interpers Violence 2015; 30(16):2872-2885.

26 Tomsen S. Victims, perpetrators and fatal scenarios: a research note on anti-homosexual male homicides. Int Rev Vict 2002; 9(3):253-271.

27 Bell JG, Perry B. Outside looking in: the community impacts of anti-lesbian, gay, and bisexual hate crime. J Homosex 2015; 62(1):98-120.^-2828 Carrara S, Vianna ARB. "Tá lá o corpo estendido no chão...": a violência letal contra travestis no município do Rio de Janeiro. Physis Rio J 2006; 16(2):233-249.^,3030 Mercado Mondragon J. Intolerance toward Sexuality Diversity and Homophobic Crimes. A Sociological Analysis. Sociologica 2009; 24(69):123-156.^,3131 Waters E, Jindasurat C, Wolfe C. A report from the National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and hiv-affected hate violence in 2015 - 2016 release edition [Internet]. New York, NY: Arcus Foundation; 2016 [cited 2016 Sep 11] p. 90. Available from: http://www.avp.org/storage/documents/ncavp_hvreport_2015_final.pdf, while the percentage of homicides by firearms varied between 8.1%²⁷27 Bell JG, Perry B. Outside looking in: the community impacts of anti-lesbian, gay, and bisexual hate crime. J Homosex 2015; 62(1):98-120. and 68.0%²⁹29 Granados JA, Delgado G. Mortality by homicide in homosexuals: characterization of the cases registered in Mexico between 1995 and 2000. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2008; 29(1):43-48., averaging 25.1% across nine studies¹⁰10 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623.^,2121 Boivin RR. Características y factores de la violencia homicida contra las minorías sexuales en la Ciudad de México, 1995-2013. Sex Salud Soc Rio J. 2016; (23):22-57.^,2222 Gruenewald J, Kelley K. Exploring Anti-LGBT Homicide by Mode of Victim Selection. Crim Justice Behav 2014; 41(9):1130-1152.^,2525 Oliveira JMD. Desejo, preconceito e morte: assassinatos de LGBT em Sergipe - 1980 a 2010. [tese.] Natal: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte; 2012.Prunas A, Clerici CA, Gentile G, Muccino E, Veneroni L, Zoja R. Transphobic Murders in Italy: An Overview of Homicides in Milan (Italy) in the Past Two Decades (1993-2012). J Interpers Violence 2015; 30(16):2872-2885.

26 Tomsen S. Victims, perpetrators and fatal scenarios: a research note on anti-homosexual male homicides. Int Rev Vict 2002; 9(3):253-271.

27 Bell JG, Perry B. Outside looking in: the community impacts of anti-lesbian, gay, and bisexual hate crime. J Homosex 2015; 62(1):98-120.

28 Carrara S, Vianna ARB. "Tá lá o corpo estendido no chão...": a violência letal contra travestis no município do Rio de Janeiro. Physis Rio J 2006; 16(2):233-249.^-2929 Granados JA, Delgado G. Mortality by homicide in homosexuals: characterization of the cases registered in Mexico between 1995 and 2000. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2008; 29(1):43-48.^,3131 Waters E, Jindasurat C, Wolfe C. A report from the National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and hiv-affected hate violence in 2015 - 2016 release edition [Internet]. New York, NY: Arcus Foundation; 2016 [cited 2016 Sep 11] p. 90. Available from: http://www.avp.org/storage/documents/ncavp_hvreport_2015_final.pdf.

The findings show that crimes tended to involve a single victim and single offender. The percentage of crimes with a single victim varied between 45.5%²⁴24 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000. and 93.4%²²22 Gruenewald J, Kelley K. Exploring Anti-LGBT Homicide by Mode of Victim Selection. Crim Justice Behav 2014; 41(9):1130-1152., averaging 85.2% across five studies¹⁰10 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623.^,2222 Gruenewald J, Kelley K. Exploring Anti-LGBT Homicide by Mode of Victim Selection. Crim Justice Behav 2014; 41(9):1130-1152.

23 Kelley KK. A Mixed-Method Examination of HomicidesTargeting LGBT Individuals in the United States [these]. Arkansas: University of Arkansas; 2013.^-2424 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000.^,2727 Bell JG, Perry B. Outside looking in: the community impacts of anti-lesbian, gay, and bisexual hate crime. J Homosex 2015; 62(1):98-120., while the percentage of crimes with a single offender varied between 45.5%²⁴24 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000. and 92.0%²⁶26 Tomsen S. Victims, perpetrators and fatal scenarios: a research note on anti-homosexual male homicides. Int Rev Vict 2002; 9(3):253-271., averaging 72.4% across seven studies⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032.^,1010 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623.^,2222 Gruenewald J, Kelley K. Exploring Anti-LGBT Homicide by Mode of Victim Selection. Crim Justice Behav 2014; 41(9):1130-1152.

23 Kelley KK. A Mixed-Method Examination of HomicidesTargeting LGBT Individuals in the United States [these]. Arkansas: University of Arkansas; 2013.^-2424 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000.^,2626 Tomsen S. Victims, perpetrators and fatal scenarios: a research note on anti-homosexual male homicides. Int Rev Vict 2002; 9(3):253-271.^,2727 Bell JG, Perry B. Outside looking in: the community impacts of anti-lesbian, gay, and bisexual hate crime. J Homosex 2015; 62(1):98-120..

Two studies reported cases in which perpetrators confessed to homicide, accounting for 26.4%²³23 Kelley KK. A Mixed-Method Examination of HomicidesTargeting LGBT Individuals in the United States [these]. Arkansas: University of Arkansas; 2013. and 50.4%²²22 Gruenewald J, Kelley K. Exploring Anti-LGBT Homicide by Mode of Victim Selection. Crim Justice Behav 2014; 41(9):1130-1152. of the crimes, respectively (average of 38.4%²²22 Gruenewald J, Kelley K. Exploring Anti-LGBT Homicide by Mode of Victim Selection. Crim Justice Behav 2014; 41(9):1130-1152.^,2323 Kelley KK. A Mixed-Method Examination of HomicidesTargeting LGBT Individuals in the United States [these]. Arkansas: University of Arkansas; 2013.).

Between 17.9%⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032. and 65.0%²⁰20 Bartlett P. Killing gay men, 1976-2001. Br J Criminol 2007; 47(4):573-595. of the victims in three studies had consumed alcohol and drugs (average of 43.7%)⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032.^,2020 Bartlett P. Killing gay men, 1976-2001. Br J Criminol 2007; 47(4):573-595.^,2424 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000., compared to 14.9%²³23 Kelley KK. A Mixed-Method Examination of HomicidesTargeting LGBT Individuals in the United States [these]. Arkansas: University of Arkansas; 2013. and 72.0%²⁰20 Bartlett P. Killing gay men, 1976-2001. Br J Criminol 2007; 47(4):573-595. of perpetrators also in three studies (average of 34.9%)⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032.^,2020 Bartlett P. Killing gay men, 1976-2001. Br J Criminol 2007; 47(4):573-595.^,2323 Kelley KK. A Mixed-Method Examination of HomicidesTargeting LGBT Individuals in the United States [these]. Arkansas: University of Arkansas; 2013..

Victims

The predominant sex assigned at birth was male, varying between 80.0%⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032. and 100.0%²⁶26 Tomsen S. Victims, perpetrators and fatal scenarios: a research note on anti-homosexual male homicides. Int Rev Vict 2002; 9(3):253-271. across eight studies (average of 88.3%)⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032.^,1010 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623.^,2121 Boivin RR. Características y factores de la violencia homicida contra las minorías sexuales en la Ciudad de México, 1995-2013. Sex Salud Soc Rio J. 2016; (23):22-57.

22 Gruenewald J, Kelley K. Exploring Anti-LGBT Homicide by Mode of Victim Selection. Crim Justice Behav 2014; 41(9):1130-1152.^-2323 Kelley KK. A Mixed-Method Examination of HomicidesTargeting LGBT Individuals in the United States [these]. Arkansas: University of Arkansas; 2013.^,2626 Tomsen S. Victims, perpetrators and fatal scenarios: a research note on anti-homosexual male homicides. Int Rev Vict 2002; 9(3):253-271.^,3030 Mercado Mondragon J. Intolerance toward Sexuality Diversity and Homophobic Crimes. A Sociological Analysis. Sociologica 2009; 24(69):123-156.^,3131 Waters E, Jindasurat C, Wolfe C. A report from the National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and hiv-affected hate violence in 2015 - 2016 release edition [Internet]. New York, NY: Arcus Foundation; 2016 [cited 2016 Sep 11] p. 90. Available from: http://www.avp.org/storage/documents/ncavp_hvreport_2015_final.pdf.

The victims were mostly aged over 35 years, with the percentage of victims in this age group varying between 55.0%²¹21 Boivin RR. Características y factores de la violencia homicida contra las minorías sexuales en la Ciudad de México, 1995-2013. Sex Salud Soc Rio J. 2016; (23):22-57. and 80.5%²⁰20 Bartlett P. Killing gay men, 1976-2001. Br J Criminol 2007; 47(4):573-595.. An average of 64.8% of the victims were aged over 35 years at the time of the homicide across six studies¹¹11 Mott L, Michels E. Relatório 2018: Assassinatos de LGBT no Brasil [Internet]. Brasil: Grupo Gay da Bahia - GGB; 2019 [cited 2017 May 1] p. 25. Available from: https://homofobiamata.files.wordpress.com/2017/01/relatc3b3rio-2016-ps.pdf^,2020 Bartlett P. Killing gay men, 1976-2001. Br J Criminol 2007; 47(4):573-595.^,2121 Boivin RR. Características y factores de la violencia homicida contra las minorías sexuales en la Ciudad de México, 1995-2013. Sex Salud Soc Rio J. 2016; (23):22-57.^,2525 Oliveira JMD. Desejo, preconceito e morte: assassinatos de LGBT em Sergipe - 1980 a 2010. [tese.] Natal: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte; 2012.Prunas A, Clerici CA, Gentile G, Muccino E, Veneroni L, Zoja R. Transphobic Murders in Italy: An Overview of Homicides in Milan (Italy) in the Past Two Decades (1993-2012). J Interpers Violence 2015; 30(16):2872-2885.^,2727 Bell JG, Perry B. Outside looking in: the community impacts of anti-lesbian, gay, and bisexual hate crime. J Homosex 2015; 62(1):98-120.^,3030 Mercado Mondragon J. Intolerance toward Sexuality Diversity and Homophobic Crimes. A Sociological Analysis. Sociologica 2009; 24(69):123-156.. In two studies where the victims were transgender people²⁹29 Granados JA, Delgado G. Mortality by homicide in homosexuals: characterization of the cases registered in Mexico between 1995 and 2000. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2008; 29(1):43-48.^,3232 Mendes WG, Silva CMFP. Homicídios da População de Lésbicas, Gays, Bissexuais, Travestis, Transexuais ou Transgêneros (LGBT) no Brasil: uma Análise Espacial. Cien Saude Colet 2020; 25(5):1709-1722., the victims were aged under 35 years. The average age of the victims was 39.6 years across five studies²⁰20 Bartlett P. Killing gay men, 1976-2001. Br J Criminol 2007; 47(4):573-595.^,2121 Boivin RR. Características y factores de la violencia homicida contra las minorías sexuales en la Ciudad de México, 1995-2013. Sex Salud Soc Rio J. 2016; (23):22-57.^,2424 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000.^,2626 Tomsen S. Victims, perpetrators and fatal scenarios: a research note on anti-homosexual male homicides. Int Rev Vict 2002; 9(3):253-271.^,2828 Carrara S, Vianna ARB. "Tá lá o corpo estendido no chão...": a violência letal contra travestis no município do Rio de Janeiro. Physis Rio J 2006; 16(2):233-249..

Gays and trans women were the most affected by this type of hate crime. Gay and bisexual men accounted for between 51.0%¹¹11 Mott L, Michels E. Relatório 2018: Assassinatos de LGBT no Brasil [Internet]. Brasil: Grupo Gay da Bahia - GGB; 2019 [cited 2017 May 1] p. 25. Available from: https://homofobiamata.files.wordpress.com/2017/01/relatc3b3rio-2016-ps.pdf and 74.4%¹⁰10 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623. of victims across four studies (average of 59.0%)¹⁰10 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623.^,1111 Mott L, Michels E. Relatório 2018: Assassinatos de LGBT no Brasil [Internet]. Brasil: Grupo Gay da Bahia - GGB; 2019 [cited 2017 May 1] p. 25. Available from: https://homofobiamata.files.wordpress.com/2017/01/relatc3b3rio-2016-ps.pdf^,2020 Bartlett P. Killing gay men, 1976-2001. Br J Criminol 2007; 47(4):573-595.^,2525 Oliveira JMD. Desejo, preconceito e morte: assassinatos de LGBT em Sergipe - 1980 a 2010. [tese.] Natal: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte; 2012.Prunas A, Clerici CA, Gentile G, Muccino E, Veneroni L, Zoja R. Transphobic Murders in Italy: An Overview of Homicides in Milan (Italy) in the Past Two Decades (1993-2012). J Interpers Violence 2015; 30(16):2872-2885., while transgender people accounted for between 13.2%¹⁰10 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623. and 100.0%³²32 Mendes WG, Silva CMFP. Homicídios da População de Lésbicas, Gays, Bissexuais, Travestis, Transexuais ou Transgêneros (LGBT) no Brasil: uma Análise Espacial. Cien Saude Colet 2020; 25(5):1709-1722. of victims across five studies (average of 35.7%)¹⁰10 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623.^,1111 Mott L, Michels E. Relatório 2018: Assassinatos de LGBT no Brasil [Internet]. Brasil: Grupo Gay da Bahia - GGB; 2019 [cited 2017 May 1] p. 25. Available from: https://homofobiamata.files.wordpress.com/2017/01/relatc3b3rio-2016-ps.pdf^,2525 Oliveira JMD. Desejo, preconceito e morte: assassinatos de LGBT em Sergipe - 1980 a 2010. [tese.] Natal: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte; 2012.Prunas A, Clerici CA, Gentile G, Muccino E, Veneroni L, Zoja R. Transphobic Murders in Italy: An Overview of Homicides in Milan (Italy) in the Past Two Decades (1993-2012). J Interpers Violence 2015; 30(16):2872-2885.^,2626 Tomsen S. Victims, perpetrators and fatal scenarios: a research note on anti-homosexual male homicides. Int Rev Vict 2002; 9(3):253-271.^,3232 Mendes WG, Silva CMFP. Homicídios da População de Lésbicas, Gays, Bissexuais, Travestis, Transexuais ou Transgêneros (LGBT) no Brasil: uma Análise Espacial. Cien Saude Colet 2020; 25(5):1709-1722.. Lesbians accounted for between 3.0%¹¹11 Mott L, Michels E. Relatório 2018: Assassinatos de LGBT no Brasil [Internet]. Brasil: Grupo Gay da Bahia - GGB; 2019 [cited 2017 May 1] p. 25. Available from: https://homofobiamata.files.wordpress.com/2017/01/relatc3b3rio-2016-ps.pdf and 8.0%²⁵25 Oliveira JMD. Desejo, preconceito e morte: assassinatos de LGBT em Sergipe - 1980 a 2010. [tese.] Natal: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte; 2012.Prunas A, Clerici CA, Gentile G, Muccino E, Veneroni L, Zoja R. Transphobic Murders in Italy: An Overview of Homicides in Milan (Italy) in the Past Two Decades (1993-2012). J Interpers Violence 2015; 30(16):2872-2885. of victims in three studies (average of 3.5%)¹⁰10 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623.^,1111 Mott L, Michels E. Relatório 2018: Assassinatos de LGBT no Brasil [Internet]. Brasil: Grupo Gay da Bahia - GGB; 2019 [cited 2017 May 1] p. 25. Available from: https://homofobiamata.files.wordpress.com/2017/01/relatc3b3rio-2016-ps.pdf^,2525 Oliveira JMD. Desejo, preconceito e morte: assassinatos de LGBT em Sergipe - 1980 a 2010. [tese.] Natal: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte; 2012.Prunas A, Clerici CA, Gentile G, Muccino E, Veneroni L, Zoja R. Transphobic Murders in Italy: An Overview of Homicides in Milan (Italy) in the Past Two Decades (1993-2012). J Interpers Violence 2015; 30(16):2872-2885.. Heterosexuals mistaken for being LGBT were also victims of homicides possibly motivated by homophobia, accounting for between 4.0%¹¹11 Mott L, Michels E. Relatório 2018: Assassinatos de LGBT no Brasil [Internet]. Brasil: Grupo Gay da Bahia - GGB; 2019 [cited 2017 May 1] p. 25. Available from: https://homofobiamata.files.wordpress.com/2017/01/relatc3b3rio-2016-ps.pdf and 8.0%¹⁰10 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623. of victims in three studies (average of 4.8%)¹⁰10 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623.^,1111 Mott L, Michels E. Relatório 2018: Assassinatos de LGBT no Brasil [Internet]. Brasil: Grupo Gay da Bahia - GGB; 2019 [cited 2017 May 1] p. 25. Available from: https://homofobiamata.files.wordpress.com/2017/01/relatc3b3rio-2016-ps.pdf^,2222 Gruenewald J, Kelley K. Exploring Anti-LGBT Homicide by Mode of Victim Selection. Crim Justice Behav 2014; 41(9):1130-1152..

Only one study mentioned the marital status of victims, reporting that 64.5%¹¹11 Mott L, Michels E. Relatório 2018: Assassinatos de LGBT no Brasil [Internet]. Brasil: Grupo Gay da Bahia - GGB; 2019 [cited 2017 May 1] p. 25. Available from: https://homofobiamata.files.wordpress.com/2017/01/relatc3b3rio-2016-ps.pdf were single at the time of the murder.

The victims were predominantly white, with this group accounting for between 23.9%³²32 Mendes WG, Silva CMFP. Homicídios da População de Lésbicas, Gays, Bissexuais, Travestis, Transexuais ou Transgêneros (LGBT) no Brasil: uma Análise Espacial. Cien Saude Colet 2020; 25(5):1709-1722. and 93.1%²⁴24 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000. of victims across seven studies (average of 64.4%)⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032.^,1111 Mott L, Michels E. Relatório 2018: Assassinatos de LGBT no Brasil [Internet]. Brasil: Grupo Gay da Bahia - GGB; 2019 [cited 2017 May 1] p. 25. Available from: https://homofobiamata.files.wordpress.com/2017/01/relatc3b3rio-2016-ps.pdf^,2222 Gruenewald J, Kelley K. Exploring Anti-LGBT Homicide by Mode of Victim Selection. Crim Justice Behav 2014; 41(9):1130-1152.

23 Kelley KK. A Mixed-Method Examination of HomicidesTargeting LGBT Individuals in the United States [these]. Arkansas: University of Arkansas; 2013.^-2424 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000.^,2929 Granados JA, Delgado G. Mortality by homicide in homosexuals: characterization of the cases registered in Mexico between 1995 and 2000. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2008; 29(1):43-48.^,3232 Mendes WG, Silva CMFP. Homicídios da População de Lésbicas, Gays, Bissexuais, Travestis, Transexuais ou Transgêneros (LGBT) no Brasil: uma Análise Espacial. Cien Saude Colet 2020; 25(5):1709-1722.. Blacks, including “Latinos”²²22 Gruenewald J, Kelley K. Exploring Anti-LGBT Homicide by Mode of Victim Selection. Crim Justice Behav 2014; 41(9):1130-1152.^,3232 Mendes WG, Silva CMFP. Homicídios da População de Lésbicas, Gays, Bissexuais, Travestis, Transexuais ou Transgêneros (LGBT) no Brasil: uma Análise Espacial. Cien Saude Colet 2020; 25(5):1709-1722. and “brown people”²⁹29 Granados JA, Delgado G. Mortality by homicide in homosexuals: characterization of the cases registered in Mexico between 1995 and 2000. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2008; 29(1):43-48., were the second most-affected group, accounting for between 37.0%¹⁰10 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623. and 62.0%³²32 Mendes WG, Silva CMFP. Homicídios da População de Lésbicas, Gays, Bissexuais, Travestis, Transexuais ou Transgêneros (LGBT) no Brasil: uma Análise Espacial. Cien Saude Colet 2020; 25(5):1709-1722. of victims in three studies (average of 40.5%)²²22 Gruenewald J, Kelley K. Exploring Anti-LGBT Homicide by Mode of Victim Selection. Crim Justice Behav 2014; 41(9):1130-1152.^,2929 Granados JA, Delgado G. Mortality by homicide in homosexuals: characterization of the cases registered in Mexico between 1995 and 2000. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2008; 29(1):43-48.^,3232 Mendes WG, Silva CMFP. Homicídios da População de Lésbicas, Gays, Bissexuais, Travestis, Transexuais ou Transgêneros (LGBT) no Brasil: uma Análise Espacial. Cien Saude Colet 2020; 25(5):1709-1722..

The most common occupations among victims were businessperson, manager, official, priest, and teacher, with the percentage of victims in this group of occupations varying between 23.9%¹¹11 Mott L, Michels E. Relatório 2018: Assassinatos de LGBT no Brasil [Internet]. Brasil: Grupo Gay da Bahia - GGB; 2019 [cited 2017 May 1] p. 25. Available from: https://homofobiamata.files.wordpress.com/2017/01/relatc3b3rio-2016-ps.pdf and 71.2%²⁷27 Bell JG, Perry B. Outside looking in: the community impacts of anti-lesbian, gay, and bisexual hate crime. J Homosex 2015; 62(1):98-120. in four studies (average of 39.8%)¹¹11 Mott L, Michels E. Relatório 2018: Assassinatos de LGBT no Brasil [Internet]. Brasil: Grupo Gay da Bahia - GGB; 2019 [cited 2017 May 1] p. 25. Available from: https://homofobiamata.files.wordpress.com/2017/01/relatc3b3rio-2016-ps.pdf^,2020 Bartlett P. Killing gay men, 1976-2001. Br J Criminol 2007; 47(4):573-595.^,2121 Boivin RR. Características y factores de la violencia homicida contra las minorías sexuales en la Ciudad de México, 1995-2013. Sex Salud Soc Rio J. 2016; (23):22-57.^,2727 Bell JG, Perry B. Outside looking in: the community impacts of anti-lesbian, gay, and bisexual hate crime. J Homosex 2015; 62(1):98-120..

Perpetrators

The perpetrators were predominantly male, with men accounting for between 93.2%²⁴24 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000. and 100.0%¹⁰10 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623.^,2626 Tomsen S. Victims, perpetrators and fatal scenarios: a research note on anti-homosexual male homicides. Int Rev Vict 2002; 9(3):253-271. of the crimes across four studies (average of 97.7%)¹⁰10 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623.^,2424 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000.^,2626 Tomsen S. Victims, perpetrators and fatal scenarios: a research note on anti-homosexual male homicides. Int Rev Vict 2002; 9(3):253-271.^,2727 Bell JG, Perry B. Outside looking in: the community impacts of anti-lesbian, gay, and bisexual hate crime. J Homosex 2015; 62(1):98-120..

The perpetrators were mostly aged under 30 years, with the percentage of victims in this age group varying between 65.8%³¹31 Waters E, Jindasurat C, Wolfe C. A report from the National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and hiv-affected hate violence in 2015 - 2016 release edition [Internet]. New York, NY: Arcus Foundation; 2016 [cited 2016 Sep 11] p. 90. Available from: http://www.avp.org/storage/documents/ncavp_hvreport_2015_final.pdf and 93.0%²¹21 Boivin RR. Características y factores de la violencia homicida contra las minorías sexuales en la Ciudad de México, 1995-2013. Sex Salud Soc Rio J. 2016; (23):22-57.. An average of 74.9% of perpetrators were aged under 30 years across six studies²⁰20 Bartlett P. Killing gay men, 1976-2001. Br J Criminol 2007; 47(4):573-595.^,2121 Boivin RR. Características y factores de la violencia homicida contra las minorías sexuales en la Ciudad de México, 1995-2013. Sex Salud Soc Rio J. 2016; (23):22-57.^,2424 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000.^,2525 Oliveira JMD. Desejo, preconceito e morte: assassinatos de LGBT em Sergipe - 1980 a 2010. [tese.] Natal: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte; 2012.Prunas A, Clerici CA, Gentile G, Muccino E, Veneroni L, Zoja R. Transphobic Murders in Italy: An Overview of Homicides in Milan (Italy) in the Past Two Decades (1993-2012). J Interpers Violence 2015; 30(16):2872-2885.^,2727 Bell JG, Perry B. Outside looking in: the community impacts of anti-lesbian, gay, and bisexual hate crime. J Homosex 2015; 62(1):98-120.^,3131 Waters E, Jindasurat C, Wolfe C. A report from the National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and hiv-affected hate violence in 2015 - 2016 release edition [Internet]. New York, NY: Arcus Foundation; 2016 [cited 2016 Sep 11] p. 90. Available from: http://www.avp.org/storage/documents/ncavp_hvreport_2015_final.pdf. The average age of perpetrators was 24.1 years across seven studies⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032.^,1010 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623.^,2020 Bartlett P. Killing gay men, 1976-2001. Br J Criminol 2007; 47(4):573-595.^,2222 Gruenewald J, Kelley K. Exploring Anti-LGBT Homicide by Mode of Victim Selection. Crim Justice Behav 2014; 41(9):1130-1152.

23 Kelley KK. A Mixed-Method Examination of HomicidesTargeting LGBT Individuals in the United States [these]. Arkansas: University of Arkansas; 2013.^-2424 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000.^,2626 Tomsen S. Victims, perpetrators and fatal scenarios: a research note on anti-homosexual male homicides. Int Rev Vict 2002; 9(3):253-271..

The perpetrators were predominantly white (between 53.3%⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032. and 93.2%²⁴24 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000., averaging 59.1% across five studies⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032.^,1010 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623.^,2222 Gruenewald J, Kelley K. Exploring Anti-LGBT Homicide by Mode of Victim Selection. Crim Justice Behav 2014; 41(9):1130-1152.

23 Kelley KK. A Mixed-Method Examination of HomicidesTargeting LGBT Individuals in the United States [these]. Arkansas: University of Arkansas; 2013.^-2424 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000.). One study reported that 18.1% of perpetrators were black¹⁰10 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623..

The most common occupations among perpetrators were student, self-employed or unemployed. The percentage of perpetrators in this group of occupations varied between 28.0%²¹21 Boivin RR. Características y factores de la violencia homicida contra las minorías sexuales en la Ciudad de México, 1995-2013. Sex Salud Soc Rio J. 2016; (23):22-57. and 90.5%²⁷27 Bell JG, Perry B. Outside looking in: the community impacts of anti-lesbian, gay, and bisexual hate crime. J Homosex 2015; 62(1):98-120., averaging 56.0% across five studies²⁰20 Bartlett P. Killing gay men, 1976-2001. Br J Criminol 2007; 47(4):573-595.^,2121 Boivin RR. Características y factores de la violencia homicida contra las minorías sexuales en la Ciudad de México, 1995-2013. Sex Salud Soc Rio J. 2016; (23):22-57.^,2424 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000.^,2525 Oliveira JMD. Desejo, preconceito e morte: assassinatos de LGBT em Sergipe - 1980 a 2010. [tese.] Natal: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte; 2012.Prunas A, Clerici CA, Gentile G, Muccino E, Veneroni L, Zoja R. Transphobic Murders in Italy: An Overview of Homicides in Milan (Italy) in the Past Two Decades (1993-2012). J Interpers Violence 2015; 30(16):2872-2885.^,2727 Bell JG, Perry B. Outside looking in: the community impacts of anti-lesbian, gay, and bisexual hate crime. J Homosex 2015; 62(1):98-120.. It is worth mentioning that two studies²¹21 Boivin RR. Características y factores de la violencia homicida contra las minorías sexuales en la Ciudad de México, 1995-2013. Sex Salud Soc Rio J. 2016; (23):22-57.^,2727 Bell JG, Perry B. Outside looking in: the community impacts of anti-lesbian, gay, and bisexual hate crime. J Homosex 2015; 62(1):98-120. reported that sex workers (hustlers) were possible perpetrators, accounting for between 9.5%²⁷27 Bell JG, Perry B. Outside looking in: the community impacts of anti-lesbian, gay, and bisexual hate crime. J Homosex 2015; 62(1):98-120. and 33.0%²¹21 Boivin RR. Características y factores de la violencia homicida contra las minorías sexuales en la Ciudad de México, 1995-2013. Sex Salud Soc Rio J. 2016; (23):22-57. of homicides (average of 25.2%).

The quality assessment based on the Loney criteria revealed that 14 studies (85.7%) showed positive overall quality⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032.^,1010 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623.^,2020 Bartlett P. Killing gay men, 1976-2001. Br J Criminol 2007; 47(4):573-595.

21 Boivin RR. Características y factores de la violencia homicida contra las minorías sexuales en la Ciudad de México, 1995-2013. Sex Salud Soc Rio J. 2016; (23):22-57.

22 Gruenewald J, Kelley K. Exploring Anti-LGBT Homicide by Mode of Victim Selection. Crim Justice Behav 2014; 41(9):1130-1152.

23 Kelley KK. A Mixed-Method Examination of HomicidesTargeting LGBT Individuals in the United States [these]. Arkansas: University of Arkansas; 2013.

24 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000.

25 Oliveira JMD. Desejo, preconceito e morte: assassinatos de LGBT em Sergipe - 1980 a 2010. [tese.] Natal: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte; 2012.Prunas A, Clerici CA, Gentile G, Muccino E, Veneroni L, Zoja R. Transphobic Murders in Italy: An Overview of Homicides in Milan (Italy) in the Past Two Decades (1993-2012). J Interpers Violence 2015; 30(16):2872-2885.

26 Tomsen S. Victims, perpetrators and fatal scenarios: a research note on anti-homosexual male homicides. Int Rev Vict 2002; 9(3):253-271.

27 Bell JG, Perry B. Outside looking in: the community impacts of anti-lesbian, gay, and bisexual hate crime. J Homosex 2015; 62(1):98-120.

28 Carrara S, Vianna ARB. "Tá lá o corpo estendido no chão...": a violência letal contra travestis no município do Rio de Janeiro. Physis Rio J 2006; 16(2):233-249.

29 Granados JA, Delgado G. Mortality by homicide in homosexuals: characterization of the cases registered in Mexico between 1995 and 2000. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2008; 29(1):43-48.

30 Mercado Mondragon J. Intolerance toward Sexuality Diversity and Homophobic Crimes. A Sociological Analysis. Sociologica 2009; 24(69):123-156.^-3131 Waters E, Jindasurat C, Wolfe C. A report from the National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and hiv-affected hate violence in 2015 - 2016 release edition [Internet]. New York, NY: Arcus Foundation; 2016 [cited 2016 Sep 11] p. 90. Available from: http://www.avp.org/storage/documents/ncavp_hvreport_2015_final.pdf and two studies (14.3%) showed neutral overall quality¹¹11 Mott L, Michels E. Relatório 2018: Assassinatos de LGBT no Brasil [Internet]. Brasil: Grupo Gay da Bahia - GGB; 2019 [cited 2017 May 1] p. 25. Available from: https://homofobiamata.files.wordpress.com/2017/01/relatc3b3rio-2016-ps.pdf^,3232 Mendes WG, Silva CMFP. Homicídios da População de Lésbicas, Gays, Bissexuais, Travestis, Transexuais ou Transgêneros (LGBT) no Brasil: uma Análise Espacial. Cien Saude Colet 2020; 25(5):1709-1722.. Despite this, the two studies, which are technical reports, presented important results for this systematic review. The results of the assessment are shown in Chart 1.

Discussion

This systematic review provides important information on the characteristics of LGBT homicides around the world, contributing to raise visibility of these crimes. It is important to stress that it is difficult to prove that a homicide was motivated by homophobia since, in the majority of cases, the identity of the offender is unknown and it is often not clear whether the victim identified as LGBT. It is also important to highlight that this study did not aim to contextualize and discuss the social, political and economic dimensions of LGBT homicide. However, it is interesting to note that these crimes appear to be more prevalent among transgender people in the countries in the Americas (Brazil, United States and Mexico) than in the other countries, suggesting that the culture of hate toward this group is more widespread in these countries¹⁰10 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623.^,1111 Mott L, Michels E. Relatório 2018: Assassinatos de LGBT no Brasil [Internet]. Brasil: Grupo Gay da Bahia - GGB; 2019 [cited 2017 May 1] p. 25. Available from: https://homofobiamata.files.wordpress.com/2017/01/relatc3b3rio-2016-ps.pdf^,2525 Oliveira JMD. Desejo, preconceito e morte: assassinatos de LGBT em Sergipe - 1980 a 2010. [tese.] Natal: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte; 2012.Prunas A, Clerici CA, Gentile G, Muccino E, Veneroni L, Zoja R. Transphobic Murders in Italy: An Overview of Homicides in Milan (Italy) in the Past Two Decades (1993-2012). J Interpers Violence 2015; 30(16):2872-2885.^,2626 Tomsen S. Victims, perpetrators and fatal scenarios: a research note on anti-homosexual male homicides. Int Rev Vict 2002; 9(3):253-271.^,3232 Mendes WG, Silva CMFP. Homicídios da População de Lésbicas, Gays, Bissexuais, Travestis, Transexuais ou Transgêneros (LGBT) no Brasil: uma Análise Espacial. Cien Saude Colet 2020; 25(5):1709-1722.. No differences in the dynamics of gay homicide were found between the countries¹⁰10 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623.^,1111 Mott L, Michels E. Relatório 2018: Assassinatos de LGBT no Brasil [Internet]. Brasil: Grupo Gay da Bahia - GGB; 2019 [cited 2017 May 1] p. 25. Available from: https://homofobiamata.files.wordpress.com/2017/01/relatc3b3rio-2016-ps.pdf^,2020 Bartlett P. Killing gay men, 1976-2001. Br J Criminol 2007; 47(4):573-595.^,2525 Oliveira JMD. Desejo, preconceito e morte: assassinatos de LGBT em Sergipe - 1980 a 2010. [tese.] Natal: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte; 2012.Prunas A, Clerici CA, Gentile G, Muccino E, Veneroni L, Zoja R. Transphobic Murders in Italy: An Overview of Homicides in Milan (Italy) in the Past Two Decades (1993-2012). J Interpers Violence 2015; 30(16):2872-2885..

The findings show that victims are more likely to be brutally beaten, tortured or repeatedly stabbed to death with a knife or some other sharp instrument⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032.^,1010 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623.^,2020 Bartlett P. Killing gay men, 1976-2001. Br J Criminol 2007; 47(4):573-595.

21 Boivin RR. Características y factores de la violencia homicida contra las minorías sexuales en la Ciudad de México, 1995-2013. Sex Salud Soc Rio J. 2016; (23):22-57.^-2222 Gruenewald J, Kelley K. Exploring Anti-LGBT Homicide by Mode of Victim Selection. Crim Justice Behav 2014; 41(9):1130-1152.^,2424 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000.^,2525 Oliveira JMD. Desejo, preconceito e morte: assassinatos de LGBT em Sergipe - 1980 a 2010. [tese.] Natal: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte; 2012.Prunas A, Clerici CA, Gentile G, Muccino E, Veneroni L, Zoja R. Transphobic Murders in Italy: An Overview of Homicides in Milan (Italy) in the Past Two Decades (1993-2012). J Interpers Violence 2015; 30(16):2872-2885.^,2727 Bell JG, Perry B. Outside looking in: the community impacts of anti-lesbian, gay, and bisexual hate crime. J Homosex 2015; 62(1):98-120.^,2929 Granados JA, Delgado G. Mortality by homicide in homosexuals: characterization of the cases registered in Mexico between 1995 and 2000. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2008; 29(1):43-48.

30 Mercado Mondragon J. Intolerance toward Sexuality Diversity and Homophobic Crimes. A Sociological Analysis. Sociologica 2009; 24(69):123-156.^-3131 Waters E, Jindasurat C, Wolfe C. A report from the National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and hiv-affected hate violence in 2015 - 2016 release edition [Internet]. New York, NY: Arcus Foundation; 2016 [cited 2016 Sep 11] p. 90. Available from: http://www.avp.org/storage/documents/ncavp_hvreport_2015_final.pdf, reinforcing the hypothesis that these crimes are associated with exceptional cruelty, where more violence than is necessary to cause death is used, indicating hate crime⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032.^,1010 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623.^,2222 Gruenewald J, Kelley K. Exploring Anti-LGBT Homicide by Mode of Victim Selection. Crim Justice Behav 2014; 41(9):1130-1152.^,2323 Kelley KK. A Mixed-Method Examination of HomicidesTargeting LGBT Individuals in the United States [these]. Arkansas: University of Arkansas; 2013.. The crimes generally involve a single victim and a single offender¹⁰10 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623.^,2323 Kelley KK. A Mixed-Method Examination of HomicidesTargeting LGBT Individuals in the United States [these]. Arkansas: University of Arkansas; 2013.^,2424 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000. and the victim is more likely to be older than the perpetrator, particularly in cases involving gays²⁰20 Bartlett P. Killing gay men, 1976-2001. Br J Criminol 2007; 47(4):573-595.^,2121 Boivin RR. Características y factores de la violencia homicida contra las minorías sexuales en la Ciudad de México, 1995-2013. Sex Salud Soc Rio J. 2016; (23):22-57.^,2424 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000.^,2525 Oliveira JMD. Desejo, preconceito e morte: assassinatos de LGBT em Sergipe - 1980 a 2010. [tese.] Natal: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte; 2012.Prunas A, Clerici CA, Gentile G, Muccino E, Veneroni L, Zoja R. Transphobic Murders in Italy: An Overview of Homicides in Milan (Italy) in the Past Two Decades (1993-2012). J Interpers Violence 2015; 30(16):2872-2885.^,2727 Bell JG, Perry B. Outside looking in: the community impacts of anti-lesbian, gay, and bisexual hate crime. J Homosex 2015; 62(1):98-120.. Moreover, the offender is more likely to be unknown to the victim⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032.

10 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623.^-1111 Mott L, Michels E. Relatório 2018: Assassinatos de LGBT no Brasil [Internet]. Brasil: Grupo Gay da Bahia - GGB; 2019 [cited 2017 May 1] p. 25. Available from: https://homofobiamata.files.wordpress.com/2017/01/relatc3b3rio-2016-ps.pdf^,2121 Boivin RR. Características y factores de la violencia homicida contra las minorías sexuales en la Ciudad de México, 1995-2013. Sex Salud Soc Rio J. 2016; (23):22-57.^,2323 Kelley KK. A Mixed-Method Examination of HomicidesTargeting LGBT Individuals in the United States [these]. Arkansas: University of Arkansas; 2013.^,2424 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000.^,2626 Tomsen S. Victims, perpetrators and fatal scenarios: a research note on anti-homosexual male homicides. Int Rev Vict 2002; 9(3):253-271.^,2727 Bell JG, Perry B. Outside looking in: the community impacts of anti-lesbian, gay, and bisexual hate crime. J Homosex 2015; 62(1):98-120..

The data presented show that both victims and perpetrators are more likely to be white⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032.

10 Gruenewald J. Are anti-LGBT homicides in the United States unique? J Interpers Violence 2012; 27(18):3601-3623.^-1111 Mott L, Michels E. Relatório 2018: Assassinatos de LGBT no Brasil [Internet]. Brasil: Grupo Gay da Bahia - GGB; 2019 [cited 2017 May 1] p. 25. Available from: https://homofobiamata.files.wordpress.com/2017/01/relatc3b3rio-2016-ps.pdf^,2222 Gruenewald J, Kelley K. Exploring Anti-LGBT Homicide by Mode of Victim Selection. Crim Justice Behav 2014; 41(9):1130-1152. and single¹¹11 Mott L, Michels E. Relatório 2018: Assassinatos de LGBT no Brasil [Internet]. Brasil: Grupo Gay da Bahia - GGB; 2019 [cited 2017 May 1] p. 25. Available from: https://homofobiamata.files.wordpress.com/2017/01/relatc3b3rio-2016-ps.pdf^,2424 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000.^,2525 Oliveira JMD. Desejo, preconceito e morte: assassinatos de LGBT em Sergipe - 1980 a 2010. [tese.] Natal: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte; 2012.Prunas A, Clerici CA, Gentile G, Muccino E, Veneroni L, Zoja R. Transphobic Murders in Italy: An Overview of Homicides in Milan (Italy) in the Past Two Decades (1993-2012). J Interpers Violence 2015; 30(16):2872-2885., while victims are more likely to have a steady job and a higher level of education and socioeconomic status than perpetrators²⁰20 Bartlett P. Killing gay men, 1976-2001. Br J Criminol 2007; 47(4):573-595.^,2121 Boivin RR. Características y factores de la violencia homicida contra las minorías sexuales en la Ciudad de México, 1995-2013. Sex Salud Soc Rio J. 2016; (23):22-57.^,2424 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000.^,2525 Oliveira JMD. Desejo, preconceito e morte: assassinatos de LGBT em Sergipe - 1980 a 2010. [tese.] Natal: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte; 2012.Prunas A, Clerici CA, Gentile G, Muccino E, Veneroni L, Zoja R. Transphobic Murders in Italy: An Overview of Homicides in Milan (Italy) in the Past Two Decades (1993-2012). J Interpers Violence 2015; 30(16):2872-2885.^,2727 Bell JG, Perry B. Outside looking in: the community impacts of anti-lesbian, gay, and bisexual hate crime. J Homosex 2015; 62(1):98-120.. This may explain the prominence of profit-oriented crimes, where the offender seeks material or financial gain²²22 Gruenewald J, Kelley K. Exploring Anti-LGBT Homicide by Mode of Victim Selection. Crim Justice Behav 2014; 41(9):1130-1152.^,2323 Kelley KK. A Mixed-Method Examination of HomicidesTargeting LGBT Individuals in the United States [these]. Arkansas: University of Arkansas; 2013.^,2929 Granados JA, Delgado G. Mortality by homicide in homosexuals: characterization of the cases registered in Mexico between 1995 and 2000. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2008; 29(1):43-48.. Gay victims are more likely to be murdered in their residence, which is to be expected as this group cherish their privacy in intimate encounters⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032.^,2020 Bartlett P. Killing gay men, 1976-2001. Br J Criminol 2007; 47(4):573-595.

21 Boivin RR. Características y factores de la violencia homicida contra las minorías sexuales en la Ciudad de México, 1995-2013. Sex Salud Soc Rio J. 2016; (23):22-57.

22 Gruenewald J, Kelley K. Exploring Anti-LGBT Homicide by Mode of Victim Selection. Crim Justice Behav 2014; 41(9):1130-1152.

23 Kelley KK. A Mixed-Method Examination of HomicidesTargeting LGBT Individuals in the United States [these]. Arkansas: University of Arkansas; 2013.

24 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000.^-2525 Oliveira JMD. Desejo, preconceito e morte: assassinatos de LGBT em Sergipe - 1980 a 2010. [tese.] Natal: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte; 2012.Prunas A, Clerici CA, Gentile G, Muccino E, Veneroni L, Zoja R. Transphobic Murders in Italy: An Overview of Homicides in Milan (Italy) in the Past Two Decades (1993-2012). J Interpers Violence 2015; 30(16):2872-2885.^,3131 Waters E, Jindasurat C, Wolfe C. A report from the National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and hiv-affected hate violence in 2015 - 2016 release edition [Internet]. New York, NY: Arcus Foundation; 2016 [cited 2016 Sep 11] p. 90. Available from: http://www.avp.org/storage/documents/ncavp_hvreport_2015_final.pdf. In contrast, transgender people are more likely to be murdered in public locations because they are easily recognizable as LGBT and often work on the streets²¹21 Boivin RR. Características y factores de la violencia homicida contra las minorías sexuales en la Ciudad de México, 1995-2013. Sex Salud Soc Rio J. 2016; (23):22-57.^,2222 Gruenewald J, Kelley K. Exploring Anti-LGBT Homicide by Mode of Victim Selection. Crim Justice Behav 2014; 41(9):1130-1152. as sex workers. The premature death of transgender people is a key issue, with members of this group being twice as likely to be murdered than gays²¹21 Boivin RR. Características y factores de la violencia homicida contra las minorías sexuales en la Ciudad de México, 1995-2013. Sex Salud Soc Rio J. 2016; (23):22-57.. Furthermore, more than 80% of transgender victims were aged under 30 years³³33 Mott L. Homo-afetividade e direitos humanos. Rev Estud Fem 2006;14(2):509-521., revealing their precarious lives marked by different types of vulnerability, particularly the lack of protection provide by the government, even in countries where sexual and gender dissidence is not criminalized.

Offenders are more likely to be male²⁴24 Mouzos J, Thompson S. Gay-Hate Related Homicides: An Overview of Major Findings in New South Wales. Australia: Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice series; 2000. and tend to have a “macho mindset”, which treats the LGBT population and women as “contemptible minorities”³3 Borrillo D. Homofobia - história e crítica de um preconceito. Belo Horizonte: Autêntica; 2015. 141 p.^,2929 Granados JA, Delgado G. Mortality by homicide in homosexuals: characterization of the cases registered in Mexico between 1995 and 2000. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2008; 29(1):43-48.^,34. This fact may explain, to a certain extent, the stance adopted by the aggressors, probably to humiliate the victims. It is important to highlight that the consumption of drugs and alcohol by victims and perpetrators may be a precipitating factor for the frequency of these crimes and their brutal nature ⁹9 Stacey M. Distinctive Characteristics of Sexual Orientation Bias Crimes. J Interpers Violence 2011; 26(15):3013-3032.^,2020 Bartlett P. Killing gay men, 1976-2001. Br J Criminol 2007; 47(4):573-595.^,2323 Kelley KK. A Mixed-Method Examination of HomicidesTargeting LGBT Individuals in the United States [these]. Arkansas: University of Arkansas; 2013..

Study strengths includes the originality of the review, especially considering the lack of in-depth, complete and transparent systematic reviews on this topic, and the collection of exhaustive data from across a diverse range of countries and decades, thus improving the investigation’s external validity. Limitations include the scarcity of quantitative studies, loss of data due to the fact that some studies provided little detail as to results, and lack of standardization of studies. However, these limitations did not negatively affect the scope of the relevant information obtained by this review. To address these limitations, we performed an exhaustive search of the electronic databases and gray literature, enabling us to obtain the studies included in this review.

Final considerations

The fact that victims were generally older than offenders and that the latter are normally unknown to the victim were the main characteristics of LGBT homicides. Transgender people are more affected than gays, victims among this group are younger, and homicides against trans individuals tend to occur in public locations. Homicides against the LGBT population may be considered hate crimes, as the victims suffer exceptional cruelty and more violence than necessary is used to cause death.

Futures research is needed to compare and confirm the findings of this study, including systematic reviews on non-lethal crime, suicide and LGBT homicide focusing on qualitative studies, in order to contribute to implementing a more effective response to violence against this group and the discourse of hate that is so present in today’s society.

We believe that our findings provide important new insights into the characteristics of LGBT homicide at an international level, which have been little-studied up until now. It is important to mention that the lack of research in this area is mainly due to gaps in records of these crimes in the majority of countries, including those encompassed by this systematic review.

Due to the lack of official records of violence against the LGBT population, it is not possible to say which country most kills members of this group. Although the international data reveal the cruelty and inhuman nature of “LGBTphobic violence”, the statistics are far from complete, as several of the authors of the publications analyzed in this review highlight.

Within this context, the selected studies confirm that LGBT homicide is a major public health problem, severely affecting mortality rates, especially among the transgender population. The findings confirm the trend of increasing violence against the LGBT community, which is becoming more widespread each year, creating a problem of epidemic proportions.

Acknowledgements

This article was supported by the Departamento de Epidemiologia e Métodos Quantitativos em Saúde, Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública Sergio Arouca, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Brasil.

We are grateful to the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Amazonas (FAPEAM), for the award of a doctoral scholarship to the lead author, to Maria de Fátima Martins, specialist librarian at ICICT/FIOCRUZ who helped develop the search strategy, and to the social scientist Valdeci Doneda (in memoriam) for the revision of the text and her helpful suggestions.

References

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