Abstract

This article aims to evaluate the sleep quality in individuals during the COVID-19 pandemic by Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI). Searches were conducted in the PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, and PEDro databases, on May 22, 2020. In the publications, 208 articles were found and, considering the eligibility criteria, 10 articles were included at the end, showing the effects on sleep quality during the pandemic, in populations hospitalized, quarantined, and in frontline health professionals. The PSQI measured sleep disorders and a higher score indicated poor sleep quality. Nine articles were classified with evidence level IV and one as level III-2. Eight studies present a “serious” risk of bias and two in “moderate”. The studies investigated different populations and described the results as “poor” sleep quality, considering the PSQI on quarantined individuals and frontline health professionals as the most committed. A poor sleep quality was found in the populations evaluated in the selected publications, probably, due to the COVID-19 to contribute as a risk factor for mental health. Psychological interventions must be made to minimize the consequences through social support and social capital.

Key words
Sleep; Self-assessment; Social isolation; COVID-19

Resumo

O objetivo deste artigo é avaliar a qualidade do sono em indivíduos durante a pandemia de COVID-19 pelo Índice de Qualidade do Sono de Pittsburgh (IQSP). Buscas foram realizadas nas bases de dados PubMed, Embase, Web of Science e PEDro, em 22 de maio de 2020. Nas publicações, foram encontrados 208 artigos e, considerando os critérios de elegibilidade, foram incluídos ao final 10 artigos, mostrando os efeitos na qualidade do sono durante a pandemia, em populações hospitalizadas, em quarentena e em profissionais de saúde. O IQSP mediu os distúrbios do sono e uma pontuação mais alta indicava uma má qualidade do sono. Foram classificados nove artigos com nível de evidência IV e um como nível III-2. Oito estudos apresentaram um risco de viés “crítico” e dois em “moderado”. Os estudos investigaram diferentes populações e descreveram os resultados como uma má qualidade do sono, considerando o IQSP, sendo os titulares de quarentena e profissionais de saúde como os mais comprometidos. Foi encontrado uma má qualidade do sono nas populações avaliadas nas publicações selecionadas, provavelmente, devido ao COVID-19 contribuir como um fator de risco para saúde mental. Intervenções psicológicas devem ser feitas para minimizar as consequências através do apoio social e capital social.

Palavras-chave
Sono; Autoavaliação; Isolamento social; COVID-19

Introduction

In December 2019, an outbreak of novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) originated in Wuhan city, China, rapidly spread over China and to many other countries¹1 Munster VJ, Koopmans M, van Doremalen N, van Riel D, de Wit E. A novel coronavirus emerging in China - Key questions for impact assessment. N Engl J Med 2020; 382(8):692-694.. The World Health Organization (WHO) officially recognized the COVID-19 as a public health emergency of international concern (PHEIC) and declared the outbreak of COVID-19 as a “pandemic”²2 World Health Organization (WHO). Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Dashboard. [Internet]. Geneva: WHO; 2020. Disponível em: https://covid19.who.int/?gclid=CjwKCAjwtNf6BRAwEiwAkt6UQiBc6w5D6BwdPiVE-vFZdv1MeCyVJ9tLl_pLUOdb4h9O00-A1NRTIhoC7W4QAvD_BwE
https://covid19.who.int/?gclid=CjwKCAjwt... ^,33 World Health Organization (WHO). Director-General's opening remarks at the media briefing on COVID-19. Geneva: WHO, 2020. Disponível em: https://www.who.int/dg/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19---25-may-2020
https://www.who.int/dg/speeches/detail/w... .

With the pandemic, the number of suspected and confirmed individuals increased, as well as the workload, work pressure, and risk of infection of front-line clinical staff to fight the epidemic⁴4 Wu K, Wei X. Analysis of Psychological and Sleep Status and Exercise Rehabilitation of Front-Line Clinical Staff in the Fight Against COVID-19 in China. Med Sci Monit Basic Res. 2020; 26:e924085..

Actions such as quarantine, social distancing, and lockdown was adopted in different countries to reduce virus circulation, and consequently, the lifestyles of the populations were changed. Although the measures adopted have been fundamental to reduce the outbreak of the virus, they may have a high psychological cost that should be noted⁵5 Casagrande M, Favieri F, Tambelli R, Forte G. The enemy who sealed the world: effects quarantine due to the COVID-19 on sleep quality, anxiety, and psychological distress in the Italian population. Sleep Med. 2020; 75:12-20.. Such outbreaks have typically resulted in widespread fear, anxiety, and a variety of psychological problems. In consequence, the stigmatization of patients with the disease and their relations, of care workers, even of all residents in hardest-hit areas occurred⁶6 Mak IWC, Chu CM, Pan PC, Yiu MGC, Ho SC, Chan VL. Risk factors for chronic post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in SARS survivors. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2010; 32(6):590-598.. In general, infectious disease epidemics affect not only the physical health of patients but also the psychological health and well-being of the uninfected population in quarantine⁷7 Xiao H, Zhang Y, Kong D, Li S, Yang N. Social capital and sleep quality in individuals who self-isolated for 14 days during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in January 2020 in China. Med Sci Monit 2020; 26:e923921..

In this context, COVID-19 has become an aggressive agent that triggers negative psychological effects that can raise levels of anxiety, depression, and stress in individuals⁸8 Ornell F, Schuch JB, Sordi AO, Kessler FHP. "Pandemic fear" and COVID-19: Mental health burden and strategies. Braz J Psychiatry. 2020; 42(3):232-235.. These negative emotions contribute to affect the quality of sleep, leading to sleep disorders. This demonstrates the need to prevent and reduce these complications through psychological support, using attitudes of social capital⁷7 Xiao H, Zhang Y, Kong D, Li S, Yang N. Social capital and sleep quality in individuals who self-isolated for 14 days during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in January 2020 in China. Med Sci Monit 2020; 26:e923921..

Besides, sleep disorders have special attention in the field of public health, due to good sleep quality favors to better health and well-being. Moreover, it is a primordial biological process for mental and physical health⁹9 Simões ND, Monteiro LHB, Lucchese R, De Amorim TA, Denardi TC, Vera I, Silva GC, Sverzut C. Quality and sleep duration among public health network users. ACTA Paul Enferm. 2019; 32(5):530-537.. Despite public awareness, there are levels of anxiety that affect sleep quality during epidemics, including periods of population quarantine or self-isolation and in specific occupations¹⁰10 Yuan S, Liao Z, Huang H, Jiang B, Zhang X, Wang Y, Zhao M. Comparison of the indicators of psychological stress in the population of Hubei province and non-endemic provinces in China during two weeks during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in February 2020. Med Sci Monit. 2020; 26:e923767. Some non-pharmacological interventions during the hospitalization¹¹11 Sañudo B, Seixas A, Gloeckl R, Rittweger J, Rawer R, Taiar R, van der Zee EA, van Heuvelen MJG, Lacerda AC, Sartorio A, Bemben M, Cochrane D, Furness T, Sá-Caputo DC, Bernardo-Filho M. Potential application of whole-body vibration exercise for improving the clinical conditions of covid-19 infected individuals: A narrative review from the world association of vibration exercise experts (wavex) panel. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020; 17(10):3650., confinement¹²12 Sá-Caputo DC, Taiar R, Seixas A, Sanudo B, Sonza A, Bernardo-Filho M. A Proposal of Physical Performance Tests Adapted as Home Workout Options during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Appl Sci. 2020; 10(14):4755., and post-COVID-19 infection have been suggested¹³13 Li Z, Zheng C, Duan C, Zhang Y, Li Q, Dou Z, Li J, Xia W. Rehabilitation needs of the first cohort of post-acute COVID-19 patients in Hubei, China. Eur J Phys Rehabil Med. 2020; 56(3):339-344..

Sleep is considered as a period of rest for the body and mind, during which volition and consciousness are in partial or complete abeyance and the bodily functions partially suspended. Sleep has also been described as a behavioral state marked by characteristic immobile posture and diminished but readily reversible sensitivity to the external stimuli¹⁴14 The Free Dictionary by Farlex. Definition of sleep. [Internet]. 2012. Disponível em: https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/sleep
https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictio... ^,1515 Doherty R, Madigan S, Warrington G, Ellis J. Sleep, and nutrition interactions: Implications for athletes. Nutrients. 2019; 11(4):822.. Good sleep quality can promote rapid recovery of body function, relieve work fatigue, and maintain sufficient energy, physical strength, and a healthy mental state⁴4 Wu K, Wei X. Analysis of Psychological and Sleep Status and Exercise Rehabilitation of Front-Line Clinical Staff in the Fight Against COVID-19 in China. Med Sci Monit Basic Res. 2020; 26:e924085.. It is a relevant parameter in the assessment of overall health, and a relevant factor in determining the risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVD)¹⁶16 Araujo PAB, Sties SW, Wittkopf PG, Schmitt Netto A, Gonzáles AI, Lima DP, Guimarães SN, Aranha EE, Andrade A, Carvalho T. Índice da qualidade do sono de Pittsburgh para uso na reabilitação cardiopulmonar e metabólica. Rev Bras Med Esporte. 2015; 21(6):472-475..

An observational clinic study during COVID-19 infection in China concluded that in medical staff, the levels of anxiety, stress, and self-efficacy were related to sleep quality and social support¹⁷17 Xiao H, Zhang Y, Kong D, Li S, Yang N. The effects of social support on sleep quality of medical staff treating patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in January and February 2020 in China. Med Sci Monit. 2020; 26:e923549.. It was also observed, that many patients hospitalized developed anxiety and sleep disturbances after isolation treatment¹⁸18 Liu K, Chen Y, Wu D, Lin R, Wang Z, Pan L. Effects of progressive muscle relaxation on anxiety and sleep quality in patients with COVID-19. Complement Ther Clin Pract. 2020; 39:101132..

Because the disturbances in sleep during outbreak of infectious disease, this systematic review aims to evaluate the sleep quality in individuals during the COVID-19 pandemic by the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI).

Methodology

Research question, search and registration

This systematic review aimed to answer the following question: Can the sleep quality be affected during the pandemic COVID-19? The PECO (P=Population, E=Exposition, C=Comparison, O=Outcomes) our major components of the research question¹⁹19 Liberati A, Altman DG, Tetzlaff J, Mulrow C, Gøtzsche PC, Ioannidis JPA, et al. The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: explanation and elaboration. J Clin Epidemiol. 2009; 62(10):e1-e34.. P=general population; E=Quarantine; C=People not exposed to quarantine; O=Negative impacts on sleep quality by PSQI.

The search performed using the electronic databanks PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, and PEDro; held on May 22^nd, 2020. The key words “COVID-19* and sleep and human*”, “randomized controlled trial or clinical trial” were used in the search to find publications related. Therefore, there are situations where it is not possible to conduct randomized clinical trials (for ethical, operational, or financial issues), observational studies are presented as a suitable alternative.

This systematic review was registered on the International Prospective Register of Ongoing Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO), and the detailed protocol can be accessed online²⁰20 Ferreira-Souza LF, Moreira-Marconi E, Paineiras-Domingos LL, Sá-Caputo DC, Melo-Oliveira MES, Bernardo-Filho M, Pessanha-Freitas J, Lacerda AC, Mendonça VA. The impact of COVID-19 pandemic in the quality of sleep by Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index: A systematic review. [Internet]. National Institute for Health Research (NIHR). International prospective register of systematic reviews (PROSPERO). 2020. Disponível em: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?RecordID=191235
https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/disp... .

Study selection and data extraction

Independently of the year, all publications found on the databases were exported to a file, and the duplicates were manually removed by the author. Afterward, four steps were considered in the review. Records were identified in the searched databases (Identification) and two reviewers (MESMO, JPF) individually evaluated the titles and abstracts, and exclusion of irrelevant studies was made considering in eligibility criteria (Screening). Appropriated full texts were analyzed for eligibility (Eligibility criteria), and all relevant studies were taking into consideration to be selected for the current systematic review. The no agreements were solved by a third reviewer (EMM). Gray literature was not considered in the current systematic review.

The same researchers made the data extraction (author and year), studied population, PSQI score, sleep quality and specific condition, subjects (sample size), demographics (country, age, gender), a tool of the evaluation were extracted.

Eligibility criteria

The studies included in this review should (i) investigate the effects of the COVID-19 in the sleep quality of infected or no infected individuals through the PSQI; (ii) be written in English; (iii) to be cross-sectional design, control case, and cohort studies. Articles were excluded if they were duplicates, comments, letters, conference abstracts, books, book chapters, incomplete, systematic reviews, and meta-analysis, or narrative reviews. Also, articles that did not address sleep quality or did not specifically report the findings of COVID-19 were rejected. The publications involving other diseases and comorbidities in the quality of sleep were also withdrawn.

PSQI and outcomes

The PSQI allows evaluating the quality and disturbances of sleep over one month. The questionnaire consists of 19 self-assessed questions that are categorized into 7 components: 1) sleep quality, 2) sleep latency, 3) sleep duration, 4) sleep efficiency, 5) sleep disorders, 6) medication use to sleep, and 7) daytime sleepiness. Each component is classified in a score ranging from 0 to 3. The sum of the scores for these 7 components produces a score ranging from 0 to 21. It presents a cutoff point where it considers good sleep quality if PSQI≤5 and poor sleep quality if PSQI>5 ²¹21 Buysse DJ, Reynolds CF, Monk TH, Berman SR, Kupfer DJ. The Pittsburgh sleeps quality index: A new instrument for psychiatric practice and research. Psychiatry Res. 1989; 28(2):193-213..

Level of evidence (LE)

The LE of each work was classified according to the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) 2003-2009 and the hierarchy of evidence²²22 Merlin T, Weston A, Tooher R. Extending an evidence hierarchy to include topics other than treatment: Revising the Australian "levels of evidence". BMC Med Res Methodol. 2009; 9(1):34. were used to classify the included studies in this systematic review, which consists of six levels: I) LE I - Systematic review; II) LE II - Randomized controlled trial; III) LE III-1 - Pseudo-randomized controlled trial; IV) LE III-2 - Comparative study with concurrent controls: non-randomized experimental trial, cohort study, case-control study, interrupted time series without a parallel control group; V) LE III-3 - Comparative study without concurrent controls: historical control, two or more single-arm study, interrupted time series without a parallel control group; VI) LE IV - Cases series with either post-test or pre-test/post-test outcomes.

Risk of bias of the selected studies

The evaluation of the risk of bias of the included studies was using the A Cochrane Risk of Bias Assessment Tool for Non-randomized Studies (ACROBAT-NRSI) instrument, which compares the health effects of interventions. ACROBAT-NRSI covers seven domains divided into pre-intervention and post-intervention, at intervention and post-intervention. Each item was classified as the low, moderate, serious, or critical risk of bias and is needed to inform when no information is present²³23 ACROBAT-NRSi (A Cochrane Risk of Bias Assessment Tool: for Non-Randomized Studies of Interventions) for non-clinical community-based studies: a participatory workshop using a worked example from public health [Internet]. Colloquium Abstracts. Disponível em: https://abstracts.cochrane.org/2015-vienna/acrobat-nrsi-cochrane-risk-bias-assessment-tool-non-randomized-studies-interventions-non
https://abstracts.cochrane.org/2015-vien... .

Data analysis

Considering the different study designs with several populations and the number of individuals that were in other specific conditions due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and eight publications were “poor”, a metanalysis was not performed. Moreover, the study summarized the findings as a systematic review.

Results

Figure 1 shows a PRISMA flowchart¹⁹19 Liberati A, Altman DG, Tetzlaff J, Mulrow C, Gøtzsche PC, Ioannidis JPA, et al. The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: explanation and elaboration. J Clin Epidemiol. 2009; 62(10):e1-e34. with the different steps of the current systematic review, showing the number of articles selected, as well as the entire search process. Two hundred and eight papers were found from the databases and a hundred and eight were deleted because they were reviews (narrative or systematic or metanalysis) and duplicate. Considering the eligibility criteria were included only cross-sectionals studies. Of a hundred papers, ninety were excluded because they do not address sleep quality or do not specifically report findings of Coronavirus (COVID-19), as well as incomplete articles, with other comorbidities, conference summary, or in a language different from the English, remaining ten papers reached all the criteria to be included in this qualitative study. In the end, a total of ten articles resulted in that met all the criteria to be included in this qualitative study.

Considering the LE, Table 1 shows one study classified as Level III-2⁴4 Wu K, Wei X. Analysis of Psychological and Sleep Status and Exercise Rehabilitation of Front-Line Clinical Staff in the Fight Against COVID-19 in China. Med Sci Monit Basic Res. 2020; 26:e924085. and nine classified as a Lever IV (NHMRC)⁵5 Casagrande M, Favieri F, Tambelli R, Forte G. The enemy who sealed the world: effects quarantine due to the COVID-19 on sleep quality, anxiety, and psychological distress in the Italian population. Sleep Med. 2020; 75:12-20.^,77 Xiao H, Zhang Y, Kong D, Li S, Yang N. Social capital and sleep quality in individuals who self-isolated for 14 days during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in January 2020 in China. Med Sci Monit 2020; 26:e923921.^,1010 Yuan S, Liao Z, Huang H, Jiang B, Zhang X, Wang Y, Zhao M. Comparison of the indicators of psychological stress in the population of Hubei province and non-endemic provinces in China during two weeks during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in February 2020. Med Sci Monit. 2020; 26:e923767^,1717 Xiao H, Zhang Y, Kong D, Li S, Yang N. The effects of social support on sleep quality of medical staff treating patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in January and February 2020 in China. Med Sci Monit. 2020; 26:e923549.^,2424 Cellini N, Canale N, Mioni G, Costa S. Changes in sleep pattern, sense of time and digital media use during COVID-19 lockdown in Italy. J Sleep Res. 2020; 29(4):e13074.

25 Huang Y, Zhao N. Generalized anxiety disorder, depressive symptoms, and sleep quality during COVID-19 outbreak in China: a web-based cross-sectional survey. Psychiatry Res. 2020; 288:112954.

26 Wang S, Xie L, Xu Y, Yu S, Yao B, Xiang D. Sleep disturbances among medical workers during the outbreak of COVID-2019. Occup Med. 2020; 70(5):364-369.

27 Yin Q, Sun Z, Liu T, Ni X, Deng X, Jia Y, Shang Z, Zhou Y, Liu W. Posttraumatic stress symptoms of health care workers during the coronavirus disease 2019. Clin Psychol Psychother. 2020; 27(3):384-395.^-2828 Liu N, Zhang F, Wei C, Jia Y, Shang Z, Sun L, Zhou Y, Wang Y, Liu W. Prevalence and predictors of PTSS during COVID-19 outbreak in China hardest-hit areas: Gender differences matter. Psychiatry Res. 2020; 287:112921., without interventions in the investigations.

Regarding risk of bias according ACROBAT-NRSI instrument A Cochrane Risk of Bias Assessment Tool for Non-randomized Studies, eight selected publications have a “serious risk” of bias⁵5 Casagrande M, Favieri F, Tambelli R, Forte G. The enemy who sealed the world: effects quarantine due to the COVID-19 on sleep quality, anxiety, and psychological distress in the Italian population. Sleep Med. 2020; 75:12-20.^,77 Xiao H, Zhang Y, Kong D, Li S, Yang N. Social capital and sleep quality in individuals who self-isolated for 14 days during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in January 2020 in China. Med Sci Monit 2020; 26:e923921.^,1717 Xiao H, Zhang Y, Kong D, Li S, Yang N. The effects of social support on sleep quality of medical staff treating patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in January and February 2020 in China. Med Sci Monit. 2020; 26:e923549.^,2424 Cellini N, Canale N, Mioni G, Costa S. Changes in sleep pattern, sense of time and digital media use during COVID-19 lockdown in Italy. J Sleep Res. 2020; 29(4):e13074.

25 Huang Y, Zhao N. Generalized anxiety disorder, depressive symptoms, and sleep quality during COVID-19 outbreak in China: a web-based cross-sectional survey. Psychiatry Res. 2020; 288:112954.

26 Wang S, Xie L, Xu Y, Yu S, Yao B, Xiang D. Sleep disturbances among medical workers during the outbreak of COVID-2019. Occup Med. 2020; 70(5):364-369.

27 Yin Q, Sun Z, Liu T, Ni X, Deng X, Jia Y, Shang Z, Zhou Y, Liu W. Posttraumatic stress symptoms of health care workers during the coronavirus disease 2019. Clin Psychol Psychother. 2020; 27(3):384-395.^-2828 Liu N, Zhang F, Wei C, Jia Y, Shang Z, Sun L, Zhou Y, Wang Y, Liu W. Prevalence and predictors of PTSS during COVID-19 outbreak in China hardest-hit areas: Gender differences matter. Psychiatry Res. 2020; 287:112921., but only two publications in the “moderate risk” of bias⁴4 Wu K, Wei X. Analysis of Psychological and Sleep Status and Exercise Rehabilitation of Front-Line Clinical Staff in the Fight Against COVID-19 in China. Med Sci Monit Basic Res. 2020; 26:e924085.^,1010 Yuan S, Liao Z, Huang H, Jiang B, Zhang X, Wang Y, Zhao M. Comparison of the indicators of psychological stress in the population of Hubei province and non-endemic provinces in China during two weeks during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in February 2020. Med Sci Monit. 2020; 26:e923767.

Table 2 indicates the characteristics of the populations of the selected publications. Most of the populations were from China and two were from Italy. A total of 13,025 individuals participated in the studies and 7,903 were females, 5,119 males, and 3 others not identified⁵5 Casagrande M, Favieri F, Tambelli R, Forte G. The enemy who sealed the world: effects quarantine due to the COVID-19 on sleep quality, anxiety, and psychological distress in the Italian population. Sleep Med. 2020; 75:12-20.. The ages ranged from 18 to over 60 years old. The questionnaire PSQI was used in all the publications.

Table 3 shows the results in PSQI according to the selected population involved and presented the sleep disturbance score. Considering the specifications of the studied populations, four publications were about individuals at front-line medical staff⁴4 Wu K, Wei X. Analysis of Psychological and Sleep Status and Exercise Rehabilitation of Front-Line Clinical Staff in the Fight Against COVID-19 in China. Med Sci Monit Basic Res. 2020; 26:e924085., medical staff¹⁷17 Xiao H, Zhang Y, Kong D, Li S, Yang N. The effects of social support on sleep quality of medical staff treating patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in January and February 2020 in China. Med Sci Monit. 2020; 26:e923549., front-line pediatric healthcare works²⁶26 Wang S, Xie L, Xu Y, Yu S, Yao B, Xiang D. Sleep disturbances among medical workers during the outbreak of COVID-2019. Occup Med. 2020; 70(5):364-369., and front-line healthcare workers on many levels of traumatic exposure²⁷27 Yin Q, Sun Z, Liu T, Ni X, Deng X, Jia Y, Shang Z, Zhou Y, Liu W. Posttraumatic stress symptoms of health care workers during the coronavirus disease 2019. Clin Psychol Psychother. 2020; 27(3):384-395.. Six publication were about individuals in quarantine during coronavirus outbreak²⁵25 Huang Y, Zhao N. Generalized anxiety disorder, depressive symptoms, and sleep quality during COVID-19 outbreak in China: a web-based cross-sectional survey. Psychiatry Res. 2020; 288:112954., individuals from Hubei province and non-endemic provinces in China¹⁰10 Yuan S, Liao Z, Huang H, Jiang B, Zhang X, Wang Y, Zhao M. Comparison of the indicators of psychological stress in the population of Hubei province and non-endemic provinces in China during two weeks during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in February 2020. Med Sci Monit. 2020; 26:e923767, individuals non-hospitalized Italian residents²⁴24 Cellini N, Canale N, Mioni G, Costa S. Changes in sleep pattern, sense of time and digital media use during COVID-19 lockdown in Italy. J Sleep Res. 2020; 29(4):e13074., individual self-isolated at home in China during virus epidemic⁷7 Xiao H, Zhang Y, Kong D, Li S, Yang N. Social capital and sleep quality in individuals who self-isolated for 14 days during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in January 2020 in China. Med Sci Monit 2020; 26:e923921., individuals residents in Wuhan and surrounding cities during coronavirus outbreak²⁸28 Liu N, Zhang F, Wei C, Jia Y, Shang Z, Sun L, Zhou Y, Wang Y, Liu W. Prevalence and predictors of PTSS during COVID-19 outbreak in China hardest-hit areas: Gender differences matter. Psychiatry Res. 2020; 287:112921. and individuals from different Italian territorial areas involved in the emergency during coronavirus outbreak (North, Centre, South)⁵5 Casagrande M, Favieri F, Tambelli R, Forte G. The enemy who sealed the world: effects quarantine due to the COVID-19 on sleep quality, anxiety, and psychological distress in the Italian population. Sleep Med. 2020; 75:12-20.. In all studies, sleep quality was poor in various populations.

Discussion

The purpose of this current systematic review was to collect data on the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on sleep quality in individuals, summarizing the results obtained by the PSQI. This might aid to better understand the effect of the COVID-19 in the evaluated population. Only cross-sectional studies were included because no publications involving cohort and case-control were found. It is relevant to consider that only one study was classified as Level of evidence of III-2 and the other nine, as IV (NHMRC) due to the studies were performed without specific intervention. Furthermore, most of the selected works presented a serious risk of bias (ACROBAT-NRSI) (Table 1), considering the design of the studies and poor quality associated.

The rapid spread of the COVID-19 determines actions that can contribute to promoting psychological disturbance²⁹29 Castro-De-Araujo LFS, Machado DB. Impact of covid-19 on mental health in a low and middle-income country. Cien Saude Colet. 2020; 25(Supl. 1):2457-2460.. Moreover, individuals suffering from psychological problems are particularly vulnerable to the virus and the pandemic: vulnerabilities associated with medical comorbidities, illness, cognitive problems, health problems, and problems related to confinement and psychosocial complications. Furthermore, currently, most individuals are exposed to an unprecedented stressful situation of unknown duration. This can not only increase levels of stress during the day, anxiety, and depression, but also disrupt sleep³⁰30 Altena E, Baglioni C, Espie CA, Ellis J, Gavriloff D, Holzinger B, Schlarb A, Frase L, Jernelöv S, Riemann D. Dealing with sleep problems during home confinement due to the COVID-19 outbreak: Practical recommendations from a task force of the European CBT-I Academy. J Sleep Res. 2020; 29(4):e13052.. Sleep questionnaires detailing pertinent sleep-related information and sleep logs are relevant and often useful. The PSQI assesses sleep quality and disturbances over one month²¹21 Buysse DJ, Reynolds CF, Monk TH, Berman SR, Kupfer DJ. The Pittsburgh sleeps quality index: A new instrument for psychiatric practice and research. Psychiatry Res. 1989; 28(2):193-213..

The selected studies (Table 2 and Table 3) were conducted using an anonymous self-reported questionnaire PSQI, asking respondents, through the online system (digital media), for information on sleep quality during the endemic period. For this, several digital media activities were accessed for data collection, using internet browsing by computer or mobile phone⁴4 Wu K, Wei X. Analysis of Psychological and Sleep Status and Exercise Rehabilitation of Front-Line Clinical Staff in the Fight Against COVID-19 in China. Med Sci Monit Basic Res. 2020; 26:e924085.^,55 Casagrande M, Favieri F, Tambelli R, Forte G. The enemy who sealed the world: effects quarantine due to the COVID-19 on sleep quality, anxiety, and psychological distress in the Italian population. Sleep Med. 2020; 75:12-20.^,1010 Yuan S, Liao Z, Huang H, Jiang B, Zhang X, Wang Y, Zhao M. Comparison of the indicators of psychological stress in the population of Hubei province and non-endemic provinces in China during two weeks during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in February 2020. Med Sci Monit. 2020; 26:e923767^,2626 Wang S, Xie L, Xu Y, Yu S, Yao B, Xiang D. Sleep disturbances among medical workers during the outbreak of COVID-2019. Occup Med. 2020; 70(5):364-369.^,2828 Liu N, Zhang F, Wei C, Jia Y, Shang Z, Sun L, Zhou Y, Wang Y, Liu W. Prevalence and predictors of PTSS during COVID-19 outbreak in China hardest-hit areas: Gender differences matter. Psychiatry Res. 2020; 287:112921. on social networking sites, e-mail²⁷27 Yin Q, Sun Z, Liu T, Ni X, Deng X, Jia Y, Shang Z, Zhou Y, Liu W. Posttraumatic stress symptoms of health care workers during the coronavirus disease 2019. Clin Psychol Psychother. 2020; 27(3):384-395., instant messaging, webchats²⁵25 Huang Y, Zhao N. Generalized anxiety disorder, depressive symptoms, and sleep quality during COVID-19 outbreak in China: a web-based cross-sectional survey. Psychiatry Res. 2020; 288:112954., video calls²⁴24 Cellini N, Canale N, Mioni G, Costa S. Changes in sleep pattern, sense of time and digital media use during COVID-19 lockdown in Italy. J Sleep Res. 2020; 29(4):e13074..

Sleep quality is a key indicator of health. Most sleep disorders can be diagnosed by a comprehensive sleep history, which includes a detailed account of routine sleep-related habits. Sleep-wake rhythms have changed markedly, with people going to bed and waking up later, and spending more time in bed, but, paradoxically, also reporting less sleep quality²⁴24 Cellini N, Canale N, Mioni G, Costa S. Changes in sleep pattern, sense of time and digital media use during COVID-19 lockdown in Italy. J Sleep Res. 2020; 29(4):e13074.. Sleep disorders encompass a wide range of conditions that have been most recently categorized in the International Classification of Sleep Disorders, Second Edition (ICSD-2)³¹31 Sateia MJ. International classification of sleep disorders-third edition highlights and modifications. Chest. 2014; 146(5):1387-1394..

These findings supply valuable information for policymakers and mental health professionals worldwide regarding the psychological impact of an infectious disease outbreak. Normative and systematic assessments and observation are conducted with a view to early strengthening, underpin, and providing reference basis in strategies for improving sleep quality³²32 Qi J, Xu J, Li BZ, Huang JS, Yang Y, Zhang ZT, Yao DA, Liu QH, Jia M, Gong DK, Ni XH, Zhang QM, Shang FR, Xiong N, Zhu CL, Wang T, Zhang X. The evaluation of sleep disturbances for Chinese frontline medical workers under the outbreak of COVID-19. Sleep Med. 2020; 72:1-4.. Psychological first aids could be delivered by someone who understands the basic principles, training community volunteers in the future might be an effective and sustainable way to alleviate the mental stress of the general public during times of crisis³³33 Huang Y, Zhao N. Mental health burden for the public affected by the COVID-19 outbreak in China: Who will be the high-risk group? Psychol Health Med 2021; 26(1):23-34..

As it was shown in Table 3, the quality of sleep of the various evaluated populations related to the COVID-19 was poor. A study showed that sleep deficient humans and rodents exhibit a proinflammatory component; therefore, sleep loss is considered as a risk factor for developing cardiovascular, metabolic, and neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., diabetes, Alzheimer’s disease, and multiple sclerosis)³⁴34 Hurtado-Alvarado G, Pavón L, Castillo-García SA, Hernández ME, Domínguez-Salazar E, Velázquez-Moctezuma J, Gómez-González B. Sleep Loss as a Factor to Induce Cellular and Molecular Inflammatory Variations. Clin Dev Immunol. 2013; 2013:801341.. And recurring long-term episodes of insufficient sleep can lead to emotional reactions with negative repercussions for the body, such as fatigue, palpitation, chest tightness, drowsiness, irritability, inattention, headache, decrease appetite and dizziness, in addition to increasing barriers to various systems, such as immunity, learning, and memory⁴4 Wu K, Wei X. Analysis of Psychological and Sleep Status and Exercise Rehabilitation of Front-Line Clinical Staff in the Fight Against COVID-19 in China. Med Sci Monit Basic Res. 2020; 26:e924085.. Evidence indicated that mental health problems could occur in healthcare professionals and survivors during the COVID-19 pandemic³⁵35 Huang Y, Zhao N. Chinese mental health burden during the COVID-19 pandemic. Asian J Psychiatr. 2020; 51:102052. and this might justify our findings of the quality of the sleep.

Moreover, individuals with depression are prone to persistent sleep disorders, which are manifested as insomnia, difficulty falling asleep, early waking, sleep rhythm disorder, and other forms. It was associated with sleep disturbance in health workers³⁶36 Liu X, Kakade M, Fuller CJ, Fan B, Fang Y, Kong J, Guan Z, Wu P. Depression after exposure to stressful events: Lessons learned from the severe acute respiratory syndrome epidemic. Compr Psychiatry. 2012; 53(1):15-23.. These characteristics have been concluded in studies by Wu and Wei⁴4 Wu K, Wei X. Analysis of Psychological and Sleep Status and Exercise Rehabilitation of Front-Line Clinical Staff in the Fight Against COVID-19 in China. Med Sci Monit Basic Res. 2020; 26:e924085., Xiao et al.¹⁷17 Xiao H, Zhang Y, Kong D, Li S, Yang N. The effects of social support on sleep quality of medical staff treating patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in January and February 2020 in China. Med Sci Monit. 2020; 26:e923549., Wang et al.²⁶26 Wang S, Xie L, Xu Y, Yu S, Yao B, Xiang D. Sleep disturbances among medical workers during the outbreak of COVID-2019. Occup Med. 2020; 70(5):364-369. and Yin et al.²⁷27 Yin Q, Sun Z, Liu T, Ni X, Deng X, Jia Y, Shang Z, Zhou Y, Liu W. Posttraumatic stress symptoms of health care workers during the coronavirus disease 2019. Clin Psychol Psychother. 2020; 27(3):384-395., when healthcare teams who treated patients in front-line with high exposure to COVID-19, showed more sleep disorders and higher latency, indicating worse sleep quality than those with less exposure, especially when they feel their life is in danger.

Besides, previous studies have shown that the survivors who participated in the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) epidemic³⁷37 Wu KK, Chan SK, Ma TM. Posttraumatic stress after SARS. Emerg Infect Dis. 2005; 11(8):1297-300., Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) epidemic³⁸38 Lee SM, Kang WS, Cho AR, Kim T, Park JK. The psychological impact of the 2015 MERS outbreak on hospital workers and quarantined hemodialysis patients. Compr Psychiatry. 2018; 87:123-127. and influenza A (H1N1)³⁹39 Zhou H, Lu S, Chen J, Wei N, Wang D, Lyu H, Shi C, Hu S. The landscape of cognitive function in recovered COVID-19 patients. J Psychiatr Res. 2020; 129:98-102. had adverse neuropsychiatric impacts that persisted with this effect for a long time after the end of the epidemic, presenting the symptoms of anxiety, depression, stress and post-stress traumatic disorder³⁷37 Wu KK, Chan SK, Ma TM. Posttraumatic stress after SARS. Emerg Infect Dis. 2005; 11(8):1297-300.^,4040 Wu KK, Chan SK, Ma TM. Posttraumatic stress, anxiety, and depression in survivors of the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). J Trauma Stress. 2005; 18(1):39-42.^,4141 Hawryluck L, Gold WL, Robinson S, Pogorski S, Galea S, Styra R. SARS control and psychological effects of quarantine, Toronto, Canada. Emerg Infect Dis. 2004; 10(7):1206-1212.. A higher prevalence of these symptoms is associated with worse subjective quality of sleep and a fragmented sleep pattern²⁸28 Liu N, Zhang F, Wei C, Jia Y, Shang Z, Sun L, Zhou Y, Wang Y, Liu W. Prevalence and predictors of PTSS during COVID-19 outbreak in China hardest-hit areas: Gender differences matter. Psychiatry Res. 2020; 287:112921.. In the current study, the COVID-19 pandemic was responsible for similar levels of alteration of the quality of sleep.

Some emergency management measures are suggested that should be taken to improve the quality of sleep in front-line healthcare workers during a pandemic: strengthen exercise intervention, psychological counseling, drug intervention treatment strategies if necessary⁴4 Wu K, Wei X. Analysis of Psychological and Sleep Status and Exercise Rehabilitation of Front-Line Clinical Staff in the Fight Against COVID-19 in China. Med Sci Monit Basic Res. 2020; 26:e924085., provide individually targeted interventions of mental health services¹⁷17 Xiao H, Zhang Y, Kong D, Li S, Yang N. The effects of social support on sleep quality of medical staff treating patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in January and February 2020 in China. Med Sci Monit. 2020; 26:e923549.^,2626 Wang S, Xie L, Xu Y, Yu S, Yao B, Xiang D. Sleep disturbances among medical workers during the outbreak of COVID-2019. Occup Med. 2020; 70(5):364-369., establish a shift system to allow to take turns to rest and a hotline to provide guidance by phone²⁷27 Yin Q, Sun Z, Liu T, Ni X, Deng X, Jia Y, Shang Z, Zhou Y, Liu W. Posttraumatic stress symptoms of health care workers during the coronavirus disease 2019. Clin Psychol Psychother. 2020; 27(3):384-395.. For confined individuals, are suggested to: provide public awareness, psychosocial support interventions to improve social isolation²⁴24 Cellini N, Canale N, Mioni G, Costa S. Changes in sleep pattern, sense of time and digital media use during COVID-19 lockdown in Italy. J Sleep Res. 2020; 29(4):e13074., provide online health education to reduce uncertainty and panic⁷7 Xiao H, Zhang Y, Kong D, Li S, Yang N. Social capital and sleep quality in individuals who self-isolated for 14 days during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in January 2020 in China. Med Sci Monit 2020; 26:e923921., effective mental health services²⁸28 Liu N, Zhang F, Wei C, Jia Y, Shang Z, Sun L, Zhou Y, Wang Y, Liu W. Prevalence and predictors of PTSS during COVID-19 outbreak in China hardest-hit areas: Gender differences matter. Psychiatry Res. 2020; 287:112921., psychological intervention⁵5 Casagrande M, Favieri F, Tambelli R, Forte G. The enemy who sealed the world: effects quarantine due to the COVID-19 on sleep quality, anxiety, and psychological distress in the Italian population. Sleep Med. 2020; 75:12-20., avoid receiving too many harmful rumors, maintain exercise regularly¹⁰10 Yuan S, Liao Z, Huang H, Jiang B, Zhang X, Wang Y, Zhao M. Comparison of the indicators of psychological stress in the population of Hubei province and non-endemic provinces in China during two weeks during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in February 2020. Med Sci Monit. 2020; 26:e923767^,2525 Huang Y, Zhao N. Generalized anxiety disorder, depressive symptoms, and sleep quality during COVID-19 outbreak in China: a web-based cross-sectional survey. Psychiatry Res. 2020; 288:112954. and for patients in isolated treatment, progressive muscle relaxation is suggested as an auxiliary method¹⁸18 Liu K, Chen Y, Wu D, Lin R, Wang Z, Pan L. Effects of progressive muscle relaxation on anxiety and sleep quality in patients with COVID-19. Complement Ther Clin Pract. 2020; 39:101132..

This systematic review is, to the best of our knowledge, the first that evaluates the effect of quarantine during COVID-19 pandemic in sleep quality. Moreover, the findings of this systematic review might permit to establish actions to aid the populations exposed to the COVID-19 pandemic.

This work also has some limitations, such as (I) more representative need for research in other affected countries, particularly in a vulnerable population, since the results obtained was limited only to China and Italy; (II) some studies used the PSQI with a different cut-off point, depending on the version applied in your country or just assessed some items of the instrument; (III) exclusion of non-English language studies can have excluded some relevant information; (IV) some cross-sectional design with a small sample size difficult to make causal inferences; (V) there was a lack of follow-up studies to show changes in sleep disorders, as well as exposure, infection or attitudes of SARS-CoV-2(COVID-19) in individuals, were not measured; (VI) the measures of sleep quality used may be vulnerable because of its online self-reports; (VII) the data obtained was unbalanced in terms of sex, with more females than males.

Conclusion

Considering the PSQI, poor sleep quality was found in the populations evaluated in the selected publications, probably, due to the COVID-19 to contributes as a risk factor for disorders related to mental health. Moreover, the findings of this systematic review will be relevant to evaluate psychological interventions, focused on improving psychological well-being and reducing the risk of occurrence of disorders related to stress, depression, anxiety, and fatigue, in addition to mitigating the significant immediate and long-term effects on sleep quality, due to the undesirable consequences of the COVID-19. Furthermore, it is important to consider the need to carry out studies with a high level of evidence about the analyzed outcome.

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) (Finance Code - 001), Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq), the Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UERJ) and the Fundação de Amparo à pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ).

References

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