Abstract

The study aims to investigate the independent association of muscle mass (MM) and bone mineral content (BMC) in the performance of the handgrip strength (HGS) test and whether there is effect modification by sex and age. In 12,491 participants from the ELSA-Brasil we estimated the associations between MM, BMC and HGS using linear regression models. All the analyses were performed for total population, also stratified for sex and age. For total population an interaction term was included between each explanatory variable of interest with sex and age to verify the presence of effect modification. We observed that the higher quintiles of MM and BMC were associated to an increasing in the mean of HGS compared to the first quintile, with greater magnitudes in men compared to women, also adults compared to elderly. When we estimated the independent effect of each exposure of interest, MM showed stronger effect in HGS in women, men and adults then BMC. In conclusion, we observed that higher amounts of MM and BMC are associated with higher HGS, regardless of sociodemographic characteristics, health conditions and lifestyle, with this effect being greater in men and adults.

Key words:
Muscle mass; Bone mineral content; Handgrip strength; Aging

Resumo

O estudo tem como objetivo investigar a associação independente da massa muscular (MM) e conteúdo mineral ósseo (CMO) na realização do teste de força de preensão manual (FPM) e se há modificação do efeito por sexo e idade. Em 12.491 participantes do ELSA-Brasil estimamos as associações entre MM, CMO e FPM usando modelos de regressão linear. Todas as análises foram realizadas para a população total, também estratificada por sexo e idade. Para a população total foi incluído um termo de interação entre cada variável explicativa de interesse com sexo e idade para verificar a presença de modificação de efeito. Observamos que os maiores quintis de MM e BMC estiveram associados a um aumento na média da FPM em relação ao primeiro quintil, com maiores magnitudes em homens em relação a mulheres, também em adultos em relação a idosos. Quando estimamos o efeito independente de cada exposição de interesse, MM mostrou efeito mais forte na FPM em mulheres, homens e adultos do que BMC. Em conclusão, observamos que maiores quantidades de MM e BMC estão associadas a maior FPM, independentemente das características sociodemográficas, condições de saúde e estilo de vida, sendo esse efeito maior em homens e adultos.

Palavras-chave:
Massa muscular; Conteúdo mineral ósseo; Força de preensão manual; Envelhecimento

Introduction

A low handgrip strength (HGS) in adulthood leads to a decrease in functional capacity in aging¹1 Nunes JD, Saes MO, Nunes BP, Siqueira FCV, Soares DC, Fassa MEG, Thumé E, Facchini LA. Functional disability indicators and associated factors in the elderly: a population-based study in Bagé, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Epidemiol Serv Saude 2017; 26(2):295-304., expressed in the low performance in instrumental activities²2 Germain CM, Vasquez E, Batsis JA, McQuoid DR. Sex, race and age differences in muscle strength and limitations in community dwelling older adults: Data from the Health and Retirement Survey (HRS). Arch Gerontol Geriatr 2016; 65:98-103.^,33 McGrath RP, Robinson-Lane SG, Peterson MD, Bailey RR, Vincent BM. Muscle Strength and Functional Limitations: Preserving Function in Older Mexican Americans HHS Public Access. J Am Med Dir Assoc 2018; 19(5):391-398. and basic activities of daily living²2 Germain CM, Vasquez E, Batsis JA, McQuoid DR. Sex, race and age differences in muscle strength and limitations in community dwelling older adults: Data from the Health and Retirement Survey (HRS). Arch Gerontol Geriatr 2016; 65:98-103.^,33 McGrath RP, Robinson-Lane SG, Peterson MD, Bailey RR, Vincent BM. Muscle Strength and Functional Limitations: Preserving Function in Older Mexican Americans HHS Public Access. J Am Med Dir Assoc 2018; 19(5):391-398. and also greater incidences of chronic diseases⁴4 Peterson MD, McGrath R, Zhang P, Markides KS, Snih SA, Wong R. Muscle Weakness Is Associated with Diabetes in Older Mexicans: The Mexican Health and Aging Study. J Am Med Dir Assoc 2016; 17(10):933-938.^,55 Esteban-Cornejo I, Ho FK, Petermann-Rocha F, Lyall DM, Martinez-Gomez D, Cabanas-Sánchez V, Ortega FB, Hillman CH, Gill JMR, Quinn TJ, Sattar N, Pell JP, Gray SR, Celis-Morales C. Handgrip strength and all-cause dementia incidence and mortality: findings from the UK Biobank prospective cohort study. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle 2022; 13(3):1514-1525. and general mortality⁶6 Nofuji Y, Shinkai S, Taniguchi Y, Amano H, Nishi M, Murayama H, Fujiwara Y, Suzuki T. Associations of Walking Speed, Grip Strength, and Standing Balance with Total and Cause-Specific Mortality in a General Population of Japanese Elders. J Am Med Dir Assoc 2016; 17(2):184.e1-184.e7.. The HGS evaluates the maximum strength that the individual can do with each hand using dynamometer equipment⁷7 Schlüssel MM, Anjos LA, Vasconcellos MTL, Kac G. Reference values of handgrip dynamometry of healthy adults: A population-based study. Clin Nutr 2008; 27(4):601-607., which has the advantages of being simple, fast, and inexpensive⁸8 McGrath RP, Kraemer WJ, Snih SA, Peterson MD. Handgrip Strength and Health in Aging Adults. Sports Med 2018; 48(9):1993-2000.. HGS correlates with strength in other body compartments, being an alternative to complex arm and leg strength measurements⁹9 Cruz-Jentoft AJ, Bahat G, Bauer J, Boirie Y, Bruyère O, Cederholm T, Cooper C, Landi F, Rolland Y, Sayer AA, Schneider SM, Sieber CC, Topinkova E, Vandewoude M, Visser M, Zamboni M; Writing Group for the European Working Group on Sarcopenia in Older People 2 (EWGSOP2), and the Extended Group for EWGSOP2. Sarcopenia: revised European consensus on definition and diagnosis. Age Ageing 2019; 48(1):16-31..

Muscle mass (MM) and bone mineral content (BMC) are reached in adulthood and reflect the balance between acquisition, maintenance and loss throughout life¹⁰10 Kuh D, Wills AK, Shah I, Prentice A, Hardy R, Adams JE, Ward K, Cooper C; National Survey for Health and Development (NSHD) Scientific and Data Collection Team. Growth from birth to adulthood and bone phenotype in early old age: a British birth cohort study. J Bone Miner Res 2014; 29(1):123-133.^,1111 Kopiczko A. Determinants of bone health in adults Polish women: The influence of physical activity, nutrition, sun exposure and biological factors. PLoS One 2020; 15(9): e0238127.. This process is influenced by genetic factors, nutrient adequacy, physical exercises, chronic diseases and health behaviors¹²12 Zhu X, Zheng H. Factors influencing peak bone mass gain. Front Med 2021; 15:53-69..

Skeletal muscle and bone form a functional unit, which interact directly by the mechanical load of muscle contraction on the bone, and indirectly by the secretion of cytokines by the muscle which favor bone maintenance¹³13 Guo B, Zhang ZK, Liang C, Li J, Liu J, Lu A, Zhang BT, Zhang G. Molecular Communication from Skeletal Muscle to Bone: A Review for Muscle-Derived Myokines Regulating Bone Metabolism. Calcif Tissue Int 2017; 100:184-192.. Previous evidence suggests an isolated relationship between low muscle mass¹⁴14 Kim S, Leng XI, Kritchevsky SB. Body Composition and Physical Function in Older Adults with Various Comorbidities. Innovation Aging 2017; 1(1):1-9.

15 Buehring B, Siglinsky E, Krueger D, Evans W, Hellerstein M, Yamada Y, Binkley N. Comparison of muscle/lean mass measurement methods: correlation with functional and biochemical testing. Osteoporos Int 2018; 29(3):675-683.^-1616 Kaya A, Ozgocmen S, Ardicoglu O, Kamanli A, Gudul H. Relationship between Grip strength and hand bone mineral density in healthy adults. Arch Med Res 2005; 36(5):603-606. and bone mineral density (BMD)¹⁷17 Daly RM, Rosengren BE, Alwis G, Ahlborg HG, Sernbo I, Karlsson MK. Gender specific age-related changes in bone density, muscle strength and functional performance in the elderly: A-10 year prospective population-based study. BMC Geriatr 2013; 13:71.

18 Shin H, Liu PY, Panton LB, Ilich JZ. Physical performance in relation to body composition and bone mineral density in healthy, overweight, and obese postmenopausal women. J Geriatr Phys Ther 2014; 37(1):7-16.^-1919 Wu N, Li X, Mu S, Fu Q, Ba G. Handgrip strength is positively associated with bone mineral density in middle and aged adults: results from NHANES 2013-2014. Arch Osteoporos 2021; 16(1):121. and low HGS in adulthood, and this effect seems to be stronger with advancing age¹⁷17 Daly RM, Rosengren BE, Alwis G, Ahlborg HG, Sernbo I, Karlsson MK. Gender specific age-related changes in bone density, muscle strength and functional performance in the elderly: A-10 year prospective population-based study. BMC Geriatr 2013; 13:71.^,2020 Dey KK, Bosaeus I, Lissner L, Steen B. Changes in body composition and its relation to muscle strength in 75-year-old men and women: A 5-year prospective follow-up study of the NORA cohort in Göteborg, Sweden. Nutrition 2009; 25(6):613-619.^,2121 McLean RR, Shardell MD, Alley DE, Cawthon PM, Fragala MS, Harris TB, Kenny AM, Peters KW, Ferrucci L, Guralnik JM, Kritchevsky SB, Kiel DP, Vassileva MT, Xue QL, Perera S, Studenski SA, Dam TT. Criteria for Clinically Relevant Weakness and Low Lean Mass and Their Longitudinal Association with Incident Mobility Impairment and Mortality: The Foundation for the National Institutes of Health (FNIH) Sarcopenia Project. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2014; 69(5):576-583. and in women⁷7 Schlüssel MM, Anjos LA, Vasconcellos MTL, Kac G. Reference values of handgrip dynamometry of healthy adults: A population-based study. Clin Nutr 2008; 27(4):601-607.^,2121 McLean RR, Shardell MD, Alley DE, Cawthon PM, Fragala MS, Harris TB, Kenny AM, Peters KW, Ferrucci L, Guralnik JM, Kritchevsky SB, Kiel DP, Vassileva MT, Xue QL, Perera S, Studenski SA, Dam TT. Criteria for Clinically Relevant Weakness and Low Lean Mass and Their Longitudinal Association with Incident Mobility Impairment and Mortality: The Foundation for the National Institutes of Health (FNIH) Sarcopenia Project. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2014; 69(5):576-583..

Thus, understanding how skeletal muscle and bone act independently on muscle strength can contribute to planning and early interventions that favor bone and muscle health throughout life. In addition, the relationship between muscle and bone mass in HGS in middle-aged and elderly adults seems to estimate whether they have reached the maximum power of development and, consequently, the risk of illness and mortality.

Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) is considered the standard method for detailed assessment of body composition, including bone mass and skeletal muscle mass²²22 Macfarlane DJ, Chan NTY, Michael TA, Glen JM. Agreement between bioelectrical impedance and dual energy X-ray absorptiometry in assessing fat, lean and bone mass changes in adults after a lifestyle intervention. J Sports Sci 2016; 34(12):1176-1181.

23 Lee LW, Liao YS, Lu HK, Hsiao PL, Chen YY, Chi CC, Hsieh KC. Validation of two portable bioelectrical impedance analyses for the assessment of body composition in school age children. PLoS One 2017; 12(2):e0171568.

24 Augustemak de Lima LR, Rech CR, Petroski EL. Utilização da impedância bioelétrica para estimativa da massa muscular esquelética em homens idosos. Arch Latinoam Nutr 2008; 58(4):386-391.^-2525 Rech CR. Validação de equações antropométricas e de impedância bioelétrica para a estimativa da composição corporal em idosos [dissertação]. Santa Catarina: Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina; 2006.. However, its use in clinical practice has important limitations²²22 Macfarlane DJ, Chan NTY, Michael TA, Glen JM. Agreement between bioelectrical impedance and dual energy X-ray absorptiometry in assessing fat, lean and bone mass changes in adults after a lifestyle intervention. J Sports Sci 2016; 34(12):1176-1181.^,2323 Lee LW, Liao YS, Lu HK, Hsiao PL, Chen YY, Chi CC, Hsieh KC. Validation of two portable bioelectrical impedance analyses for the assessment of body composition in school age children. PLoS One 2017; 12(2):e0171568., which is why Bioimpedance (BIA) emerges as an alternative method for assessing body composition²⁶26 Karelis AD, Chamberland G, Aubertin-Leheudre M, Duval C. Ecological mobility in Aging and Parkinson (EMAP) group. Validation of a portable bioelectrical impedance analyzer for the assessment of body composition. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2013; 38(1):27-32.^,2727 McLester CN, Nickerson BS, Kliszczewicz BM, McLester JR. Reliability and Agreement of Various InBody Body Composition Analyzers as Compared to Dual-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry in Healthy Men and Women. J Clin Densitom 2020; 23(3):443-450., showing evidence of good correlation with the values obtained by DXA²⁴24 Augustemak de Lima LR, Rech CR, Petroski EL. Utilização da impedância bioelétrica para estimativa da massa muscular esquelética em homens idosos. Arch Latinoam Nutr 2008; 58(4):386-391.^,2525 Rech CR. Validação de equações antropométricas e de impedância bioelétrica para a estimativa da composição corporal em idosos [dissertação]. Santa Catarina: Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina; 2006.^,2828 Miyatake N, Tanakai A, Eguchi M, Miyachi M, Tabata I, Numata T. Reference Data of Multi Frequencies Bioelectric Impedance Method in Japanese. Anti-Aging Med 2009; 6(3):10-14.^,2929 Patil BR, Patkar DP, Mandlik SA, Kuswarkar MM, Jinda GD. Estimation of bone mineral content from bioelectrical impedance analysis in Indian adults aged 23-81 years: A comparison with Dual energy X-ray Absorptiometry. Int J Biomedical Engineering Technol 2012; 8(1):99-114..

Thus, the present study is innovative for covering a large sample of men and women, adults and elderly, and for investigating the effect of a life course marker, bone mass reserve, and the effect of a current health marker, muscle mass, muscle strength. In clinical practice, this can be useful, as the interpretation of the HGS test can explain the body composition conditions of individuals, allowing for more effective interventions. For public health, it can contribute to support actions and public policies that act throughout life in search of the promotion of healthy aging. Therefore, the objective of the present study is to verify the independent relationship between MM and BMC in the performance of the HGS test and whether this relationship is modified by sex and age.

Methods

Study population and design

This is a cross-sectional study, using data from participants in the second wave (2012-2014) of the Longitudinal Study on Adult Health (ELSA-Brasil), a multicenter cohort composed of 15,105 active and retired civil servants, aged between 35 and 74 years in the baseline (2008-2010), from higher education and research institutions located in six Brazilian cities (Belo Horizonte, Porto Alegre, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Vitória, and Salvador). ELSA-Brasil was approved by the Ethics and Research Committees of the six participating institutions, and all participants signed an informed consent form. Details of the study design and characteristics of the cohort have been described in previous publications³⁰30 Aquino EML, Barreto SM, Bensenor IM, Carvalho MS, Chor D, Duncan BB, Lotufo PA, Mill JG, Molina Mdel C, Mota EL, Passos VM, Schmidt MI, Szklo M. Brazilian Longitudinal Study of Adult health (ELSA-Brasil): Objectives and design. Am J Epidemiol 2012; 175(4):315-324.^,3131 Aquino EML, Vasconcellos-Silva PR, Coeli CM, Araújo MJ, Santos SM, Figueiredo RC, Duncan BB. Ethical issues in longitudinal studies: The case of ELSA-Brasil. Rev Saude Publica 2013; 47(2):19-26..

At the end of the second wave, complete follow-up information was available for 14,014 participants (203 deaths, 640 refusals, and 248 incomplete information). For the present analysis, participants who did not perform the HSG (n=747) and the measurement of body composition using electrical bioimpedance (n=776) were excluded, with 12,491 participants being eligible.

Hand grip strength

The response variable was the manual pressure force in kilogram-force (kgf), measured using a hydraulic manual dynamometer (Jamar; Sammons & Preston, USA) according to American Society of Hand Therapists (ASHT)³²32 Fess EE. Grip strength. In: Casanova JS, editor. Clinical Assessment Recommendations. 2ª ed. Chicago: American Society of Hand Therapists; 1992.. The participants were instructed to perform the test while seated, with the spine erect, the arm extended along the trunk, the elbow flexed at 90º, the forearm supported on flat support up to the wrist. The participant was instructed to press the device all at once, with as much force as he could when he heard the command: “STRENGTH” repeatedly for 3 to 4 seconds. The tester read the force to the nearest 1 Kg. Three measurements were performed on each hand alternately, and the highest of all was considered as the maximum force according to the universal standardization of the ASHT.

Muscle mass and bone mineral content

The amount of MM (kg) and BMC (kg) were determined by an electric bioimpedance device (BIA)³³33 Chumlea C, Sun SS. Bioelectrical impedance analysis. In: Heymsfield SB, Lohman TG, Wang Z-M, Going SB. Human Body Composition. 2ª ed. Champaign: Human Kinetics; 2005. p. 63-77. direct vertical segmental multi-frequency (InBody 230; BioSpace, Seoul, South Korea). MM and BMC information was obtained by the Lookin’Body LBM.1.2.0.16 software version. The participants were instructed to fast overnight for 12 to 15 hours, to empty their bladders previously, to abstain from strenuous exercise and alcoholic beverages 24 hours before the test, and not to use metallic accessories during the test.

Other variables

All the confounders included in this analysis were self-reported through standardized questionnaires or obtained through clinical procedures or laboratory exams measurements³⁰30 Aquino EML, Barreto SM, Bensenor IM, Carvalho MS, Chor D, Duncan BB, Lotufo PA, Mill JG, Molina Mdel C, Mota EL, Passos VM, Schmidt MI, Szklo M. Brazilian Longitudinal Study of Adult health (ELSA-Brasil): Objectives and design. Am J Epidemiol 2012; 175(4):315-324.^,3434 Schmidt MI, Griep RH, Passos VM, Luft VC, Goulart AC, Menezes GMS, Molina Mdel C, Vigo A, Nunes MA. Strategies and development of quality assurance and control in the ELSA-Brasil. Rev Saude Publica 2013; 47(2):105-112..

The following covariates were considered:

Sociodemographic variables: sex, age (continuous in years), educational attainment (university degree or more, complete high school, complete elementary school, or incomplete elementary school), and self-reported race/skin color (white, brown, black, Asian and Indians descendent and Brazilian indigenous defined in accordance with the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics recommendation).

Health Behaviors: alcohol consumption (no use, moderate drinkers: <210 g of alcohol/week for men and <140 g of alcohol/week for women, and heavy drinkers: >210 g of alcohol/week for men and >140 g of alcohol/week for women)³⁵35 World Health Organization (WHO). International guide for monitoring alcohol consumption and related harm. Geneva: WHO; 2000.; smoking, categorized as non-smokers (<100 cigarettes over a lifetime), ex-smokers (≥100 cigarettes over a lifetime), life and who no longer smokes) and current smoker (≥100 cigarettes throughout life and who still smokes)³⁰30 Aquino EML, Barreto SM, Bensenor IM, Carvalho MS, Chor D, Duncan BB, Lotufo PA, Mill JG, Molina Mdel C, Mota EL, Passos VM, Schmidt MI, Szklo M. Brazilian Longitudinal Study of Adult health (ELSA-Brasil): Objectives and design. Am J Epidemiol 2012; 175(4):315-324.; and leisure physical activity (mild: <600 MET-min/week, moderate: 600-3000 MET-min/week, vigorous: ≥3000 MET-min/week) obtained from the leisure-related domain in the long version of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ)³⁶36 Craig CL, Marshall AL, Sjöström M, Bauman AE, Booth ML, Ainsworth BE, Pratt M, Ekelund U, Yngve A, Sallis JF, Oja P. International physical activity questionnaire: 12-country reliability and validity. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003; 35(8):1381-1395. and categorized based on the sum of time in each type of activity performed. Alcohol consumption, smoking and physical inactivity are lifestyle factors that are known to influence bone and muscle mass status, and therefore will be considered in this analysis¹²12 Zhu X, Zheng H. Factors influencing peak bone mass gain. Front Med 2021; 15:53-69.^,3737 Tieland M, Trouwborst I, Clark BC. Skeletal muscle performance and ageing. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle 2018; 9(1):3-19..

Health conditions: Body mass index (Normal weight: ≤25.0 kg/m², Overweight: ≥25 and ≤29,9 kg/m², Obesity: ≥30 kg/m²). Anthropometric - current weight (kg) being the measurement performed with the participant barefoot, fasting and wearing standard uniform on underwear; gauged by a Toledo® Model 2096PP electronic scale, with a capacity of 200 Kg and a precision of 50 g; current height (meters) measured using Seca® wall stadiometer, Hamburg, BRD, accurate to 1 mm and affixed to the wall; the participant remained supine, barefoot, leaning his head, buttocks and heels on the wall and with his gaze fixed on the horizontal plane and his height was verified during the inspiratory period of the breathing cycle³⁸38 Lohman TG, Roche AF, Martorel R. Anthropometric standardization reference manual. Champaign: Human Kinetics Books; 1988.^,3939 Bensenor IM, Griep RH, Pinto KA, Faria CP, Felisbino-Mendes M, Caetano EI, Albuquerque LS, Schmidt MI. Routines of organization of clinical tests and interviews in the ELSA-Brasil investigation center. Rev Saude Publica 2013; 47(Supl. 2):37-47.. The body mass index (BMI) was calculated as weight divided by height squared (kg/m²); depression symptoms (no and yes), defined as a score 12 obtained in by adapted Brazilian-Portuguese version of the Clinical Interview Schedule - Revised (CIS-R)³⁴34 Schmidt MI, Griep RH, Passos VM, Luft VC, Goulart AC, Menezes GMS, Molina Mdel C, Vigo A, Nunes MA. Strategies and development of quality assurance and control in the ELSA-Brasil. Rev Saude Publica 2013; 47(2):105-112.; and the number of chronic diseases (cardiovascular diseases, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, hypertriglyceridemia, categorized in 0, 1, 2, >3). The presence of cardiovascular disease was considered by the self-report of the following conditions: acute myocardial infarction, unstable angina, congestive heart failure, stroke, and myocardial revascularization. Diabetes was self-reported or based on use of oral hypoglycemic agents and/or insulin therapy, fasting plasma glucose ≥126 mg/dL, 2 hours post-prandial 75 g glucose test ≥200 mg/dL, or glycated hemoglobin ≥6.5%⁴⁰40 American Diabetes Association. Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes 2014. Diabetes Care 2014; 37(Supl. 1):S14-S80.. Hypertension was defined by systolic blood pressure ≥140 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure ≥90 mmHg, use of antihypertensive medication, or a previous medical diagnosis of hypertension⁴¹41 Barroso WKS, Rodrigues CIS, Bortolotto LA, Mota-Gomes MA, Brandão AA, Feitosa ADM, Machado CA, Poli-de-Figueiredo CE, Amodeo C, Mion Júnior D, Barbosa ECD, Nobre F, Guimarães ICB, Vilela-Martin JF, Yugar-Toledo JC, Magalhães MEC, Neves MFT, Jardim PCBV, Miranda RD, Póvoa RMDS, Fuchs SC, Alessi A, Lucena AJG, Avezum A, Sousa ALL, Pio-Abreu A, Sposito AC, Pierin AMG, Paiva AMG, Spinelli ACS, Nogueira ADR, Dinamarco N, Eibel B, Forjaz CLM, Zanini CRO, Souza CB, Souza DDSM, Nilson EAF, Costa EFA, Freitas EV, Duarte EDR, Muxfeldt ES, Lima Júnior E, Campana EMG, Cesarino EJ, Marques F, Argenta F, Consolim-Colombo FM, Baptista FS, Almeida FA, Borelli FAO, Fuchs FD, Plavnik FL, Salles GF, Feitosa GS, Silva GVD, Guerra GM, Moreno Júnior H, Finimundi HC, Back IC, Oliveira Filho JB, Gemelli JR, Mill JG, Ribeiro JM, Lotaif LAD, Costa LSD, Magalhães LBNC, Drager LF, Martin LC, Scala LCN, Almeida MQ, Gowdak MMG, Klein MRST, Malachias MVB, Kuschnir MCC, Pinheiro ME, Borba MHE, Moreira Filho O, Passarelli Júnior O, Coelho OR, Vitorino PVO, Ribeiro Junior RM, Esporcatte R, Franco R, Pedrosa R, Mulinari RA, Paula RB, Okawa RTP, Rosa RF, Amaral SLD, Ferreira-Filho SR, Kaiser SE, Jardim TSV, Guimarães V, Koch VH, Oigman W, Nadruz W. Diretrizes Brasileiras de Hipertensão Arterial - 2020. Arq Bras Cardiol 2021; 116(3):516-658.. For hypertriglyceridemia, the cut-off point for triglycerides (TG) was defined as adequate <150 mg/dL and inadequate ≥150 mg/dL⁴²42 Faludi AA, Izar MCO, Saraiva JFK, Chacra APM, Bianco HT, Afiune Neto A, Bertolami A, Pereira AC, Lottenberg AM, Sposito AC, Chagas ACP, Casella A Filho, Simão AF, Alencar Filho AC, Caramelli B, Magalhães CC, Negrão CE, Ferreira CEDS, Scherr C, Feio CMA, Kovacs C, Araújo DB, Magnoni D, Calderaro D, Gualandro DM, Mello Junior EP, Alexandre ERG, Sato EI, Moriguchi EH, Rached FH, Santos FCD, Cesena FHY, Fonseca FAH, Fonseca HARD, Xavier HT, Mota ICP, Giuliano ICB, Issa JS, Diament J, Pesquero JB, Santos JED, Faria Neto JR, Melo Filho JX, Kato JT, Torres KP, Bertolami MC, Assad MHV, Miname MH, Scartezini M, Forti NA, Coelho OR, Maranhão RC, Santos Filho RDD, Alves RJ, Cassani RL, Betti RTB, Carvalho T, Martinez TLDR, Giraldez VZR, Salgado Filho W. Atualização da Diretriz Brasileira de Dislipidemias e Prevenção da Aterosclerose - 2017. Arq Bras Cardiol 2017; 109(2 Supl. 1):1-76., measured by the enzymatic colorimetric assay - glycerol phosphate peroxidase (ADVIA Chemistry; Siemens Healthcare Diagnostics Ltda., São Paulo Brazil).

Statistical analysis

The characteristics of the study population were presented using means (standard deviation - SD) for quantitative variables with normal distribution and absolute and relative frequencies for qualitative variables. The difference of the means (SD) of HGS were presented according the quintiles of MM and BMC were estimated through Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) with a significance level of 95% (p-value<0,05).

The spearman correlation coefficients regarding the explanatory variables of interest were moderate (data not shown). We tested for possible multicollinearity between the variables included in the final multivariate model by calculating the variance inflation factor (VIF). In order to avoid multicolinearity between BMC and MM, for the regression analysis they were included in quintile.

Linear regression was used to investigate the associations between MM and BMC with performance in the HGS. The associations magnitudes were estimated by differences in means and their 95% confidence intervals. Initially, the association between exposures (BMC and MM) and the outcome (HGS) (Model 1) was estimated. Next, sequential adjustments were made, considering potential confounders including sociodemographic factors¹⁴14 Kim S, Leng XI, Kritchevsky SB. Body Composition and Physical Function in Older Adults with Various Comorbidities. Innovation Aging 2017; 1(1):1-9.: continuous age and self-reported race/color (Model 2), education (Model 3), as well as behaviors and health conditions⁹9 Cruz-Jentoft AJ, Bahat G, Bauer J, Boirie Y, Bruyère O, Cederholm T, Cooper C, Landi F, Rolland Y, Sayer AA, Schneider SM, Sieber CC, Topinkova E, Vandewoude M, Visser M, Zamboni M; Writing Group for the European Working Group on Sarcopenia in Older People 2 (EWGSOP2), and the Extended Group for EWGSOP2. Sarcopenia: revised European consensus on definition and diagnosis. Age Ageing 2019; 48(1):16-31.^,1717 Daly RM, Rosengren BE, Alwis G, Ahlborg HG, Sernbo I, Karlsson MK. Gender specific age-related changes in bone density, muscle strength and functional performance in the elderly: A-10 year prospective population-based study. BMC Geriatr 2013; 13:71.: alcohol consumption, smoking, physical activity (Model 4), BMI, depressive symptoms and the number of chronic diseases (Model 5). Afterwards, we further adjusted for the other exposures of interest (Model 6), whenever they were also associated with the response variable at the level of p<0.05 in Model 5. In order to test for possible heterogeneity in the effect of every variable of interest (BMC and MM) according to sex and age we created and added interaction terms to the final model (Models 5 and 6) for total population, retaining the ones that were statistically significant. All the analysis were performed for total population and stratified by sex (Women/Men) and age (<65/≥65 years old, since we observe effect modification between theses age groups in the multivariate analysis). Regression diagnostics were run to verify whether the full models violated the assumptions for linear regression (i.e., normality of error distribution, linearity, homoscedasticity). Analyzes were performed using Stata 13.0 (Stata Corporation, College Station, EUA).

Results

From of 12,491 individuals, the mean age was 55.56±8.95 years and most participants were women (54.48%). In total population, also stratified by sex and age stratus, most self-reported the race skin/color as white, had completed higher education, are moderate drinkers of alcohol, nonsmoker/former smoker, practice mild intensity of physical activity, had at least one chronic disease and non-depression symptoms. Furthermore, we observed higher mean values of MM, BMC, weight, height, and HGS in men and adults. However, higher BMI were observed in women and adults (Table 1).

We observed an increasing in the mean values of HGS according to higher quintiles of MM and BMC with greater values in men compared to women, also in adults compared to the elderly (Table 2).

In total population, also stratified for women and men, and adults and elderly, after adjustments for race/skin color, educational attainment, physical activity, alcohol consumption, smoking, BMI, depressive symptoms and the number of chronic diseases (Model 5), we observed that the higher quintiles of MM and BMC were dose-respond associated to an increasing in the mean of HGS compared to the first quintile. Higher associations magnitudes between MM, BMC and HGS were found in men compared to women (P-value of interaction term for 3^rd, 4^th and 5^th quintile <0.001), also in adults compared to elderly (P-value of interaction term for 5^th quintile <0.001). After mutual adjustment for MM and BMC (Model 6) we verify a significant reduction in the association’s magnitudes for BMC, and only total population and adults remained associated to HGS (Table 3).

Discussion

We observed in a large sample of men and women, middle-aged adults and older, that individuals with higher amounts of MM and BMC performed better on HGS, even after adjusting for sociodemographic characteristics, health conditions and lifestyle. Concerning the effect modification, higher MM and BMC seems to be more related to greater HSG in men compared to women and adults compared to elderly. Although, when we estimated the independent effect of each exposure of interest, MM showed stronger effect in HGS in women, men and adults then BMC.

Previous studies that investigated the effect only of the amount of muscle²¹21 McLean RR, Shardell MD, Alley DE, Cawthon PM, Fragala MS, Harris TB, Kenny AM, Peters KW, Ferrucci L, Guralnik JM, Kritchevsky SB, Kiel DP, Vassileva MT, Xue QL, Perera S, Studenski SA, Dam TT. Criteria for Clinically Relevant Weakness and Low Lean Mass and Their Longitudinal Association with Incident Mobility Impairment and Mortality: The Foundation for the National Institutes of Health (FNIH) Sarcopenia Project. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2014; 69(5):576-583.^,4343 Charlton K, Batterham M, Langford K, Lateo J, Brock E, Walton K, Lyons-Wall P, Eisenhauer K, Green N, McLean C. Lean Body Mass Associated with Upper Body Strength in Healthy Older Adults While Higher Body Fat Limits Lower Extremity Performance and Endurance. Nutrients 2015; 7(9):7126-7142. or bone mass¹⁷17 Daly RM, Rosengren BE, Alwis G, Ahlborg HG, Sernbo I, Karlsson MK. Gender specific age-related changes in bone density, muscle strength and functional performance in the elderly: A-10 year prospective population-based study. BMC Geriatr 2013; 13:71. have been performed restricted in older adults. Some studies have found a stronger association of MM with HGS in women⁷7 Schlüssel MM, Anjos LA, Vasconcellos MTL, Kac G. Reference values of handgrip dynamometry of healthy adults: A population-based study. Clin Nutr 2008; 27(4):601-607.^,2121 McLean RR, Shardell MD, Alley DE, Cawthon PM, Fragala MS, Harris TB, Kenny AM, Peters KW, Ferrucci L, Guralnik JM, Kritchevsky SB, Kiel DP, Vassileva MT, Xue QL, Perera S, Studenski SA, Dam TT. Criteria for Clinically Relevant Weakness and Low Lean Mass and Their Longitudinal Association with Incident Mobility Impairment and Mortality: The Foundation for the National Institutes of Health (FNIH) Sarcopenia Project. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2014; 69(5):576-583., or in men²⁰20 Dey KK, Bosaeus I, Lissner L, Steen B. Changes in body composition and its relation to muscle strength in 75-year-old men and women: A 5-year prospective follow-up study of the NORA cohort in Göteborg, Sweden. Nutrition 2009; 25(6):613-619.. In a longitudinal study¹⁷17 Daly RM, Rosengren BE, Alwis G, Ahlborg HG, Sernbo I, Karlsson MK. Gender specific age-related changes in bone density, muscle strength and functional performance in the elderly: A-10 year prospective population-based study. BMC Geriatr 2013; 13:71. with individuals aged 50 years or more, over a 10-year follow-up period, it was observed that men and women present a reduction in bone mass, as well as a reduction in HGS in both sexes, although stronger decline were observed among women. In addition, for MM, in the elderly in Sweden, after 5 years of follow-up, the lowest amount of muscle mass was associated with worse performance on five tests of muscle strength, including HGS, but the decline in strength was more prominent in men²⁰20 Dey KK, Bosaeus I, Lissner L, Steen B. Changes in body composition and its relation to muscle strength in 75-year-old men and women: A 5-year prospective follow-up study of the NORA cohort in Göteborg, Sweden. Nutrition 2009; 25(6):613-619.. In our study, the greater amount reserve of BMC and MM were associated with greater performance on HGS, especially in men and adults (Models 5), since the higher amount of HSG were expressed in all quintiles of BMC and MM compared respectively to women and elderly.

During the life-course, skeletal muscle undergoes constant modifications resulting from the synthesis and degradation of proteins, and in advancing age, the increase in catabolism leads to muscle loss. Several factors are involved in this process, such as cell senescence, reduction in the number and regenerative capacity of muscle cells, resistance to anabolic stimuli, impaired mitochondrial function, changes in gene expression, resistance to insulin, and impaired neuromuscular signaling⁴⁴44 Aversa Z, Zhang X, Fielding RA, Lanza I, Brasseur NKL. The clinical impact and biological mechanisms of skeletal muscle aging. Bone 2019; 127:26-36.. Muscle gain, on the other hand, is supported by testosterone, a growth factor similar to insulin-1 (IGF1), interleukins IL-4 and IL-6, while muscle loss is supported by the ubiquitin-proteasome-dependent ATP system, caspase activity, and increased autophagy⁴⁴44 Aversa Z, Zhang X, Fielding RA, Lanza I, Brasseur NKL. The clinical impact and biological mechanisms of skeletal muscle aging. Bone 2019; 127:26-36..

Regarding BMC, bone quantity and quality reflect a large set of events that happened to an individual from intrauterine life to adulthood, when peak bone mass is reached⁸8 McGrath RP, Kraemer WJ, Snih SA, Peterson MD. Handgrip Strength and Health in Aging Adults. Sports Med 2018; 48(9):1993-2000.. The process of obtaining and maintaining peak bone mass is influenced by several factors, including gender, genetic factors, physical activity, diet (calcium and vitamin D), endocrine status (sex hormones, growth hormone, insulin as a growth factor 1), alcohol consumption, smoking, chronic diseases, and medications¹²12 Zhu X, Zheng H. Factors influencing peak bone mass gain. Front Med 2021; 15:53-69.. During puberty, there are different patterns of bone acquisition between the sexes, due to the action of sex steroids⁴⁵45 Bonjour JP, Chevalley T, Ferrari S, Rizzoli R. The importance and relevance of peak bone mass in the prevalence of osteoporosis. Salud Publica Mex 2009; 51(1):5-17., explaining the lower net bone loss in men during aging⁴⁶46 Duan Y, Turner CH, Kim BT, Seeman E. Sexual Dimorphism in Vertebral Fragility Is More the Result of Gender Differences in Age-Related Bone Gain Than Bone Loss. J Bone Miner Res 2001; 16(12):2267-2275.. As for the loss of BMC, this occurs mainly in postmenopausal women, due to the imbalance between the processes of bone resorption (osteoclasts action) and bone formation (osteoblasts action). Osteoclasts, in women, have receptors for alpha estrogens (ERα), so these hormones would act by decreasing their resorption activity, which seems to be minimized after menopause¹¹11 Kopiczko A. Determinants of bone health in adults Polish women: The influence of physical activity, nutrition, sun exposure and biological factors. PLoS One 2020; 15(9): e0238127..

Our findings point to a stronger independent effect of MM on HGS in women, men and adults. We aimed to analyze the independent effects of MM and BMC to understand how these parameters influence muscle strength. BMC, as it is formed from the fetal period and reaches its formation peak in young adulthood, already has its status defined in middle-aged and elderly adults, where the process of bone loss already begins⁸8 McGrath RP, Kraemer WJ, Snih SA, Peterson MD. Handgrip Strength and Health in Aging Adults. Sports Med 2018; 48(9):1993-2000.. In turn, although muscle mass decreases with age, it can be continuously stimulated even in the elderly, such as by strength exercises⁴⁷47 Silva TAA, Frisoli Junior A, Pinheiro MM, Szejnfeld VL. Sarcopenia associada ao envelhecimento: aspectos etiológicos e opções terapêuticas. Rev Bras Reumatol 2006; 46(6):391-397.. Thus, this may explain why MM had a stronger effect when compared to BMC.

In terms of sex differences and in agreement with our results, Orsatti et al.⁴⁸48 Orsatti FL, Dalanesi RC, Maestá N, Náhas EAP, Burini RC. Redução da força muscular está relacionada à perda muscular em mulheres acima de 40 anos. Rev Bras Cineantropom Desempenho Hum 2011; 13(1):36-42. found in a sample of Brazilian women (n=52) lower MM and muscle strength values in the fifth decade of life, with lower MM a probable factor for these findings. One explanation would be that, in general, the fifth decade of life is marked by the advent of menopause, which seems to be related to the decline of MM⁴⁸48 Orsatti FL, Dalanesi RC, Maestá N, Náhas EAP, Burini RC. Redução da força muscular está relacionada à perda muscular em mulheres acima de 40 anos. Rev Bras Cineantropom Desempenho Hum 2011; 13(1):36-42.. On the other hand, men are favored by the androgenic action of testosterone, and when muscle strength is considered in absolute values, men are generally stronger than women, with this difference being more pronounced in the muscle groups of the trunk and upper limbs⁴⁹49 Monteiro WD. Força Muscular: uma abordagem fisiológica em função do sexo, idade e treinamento. Rev Bras Ativ Fis Saude 1997; 2(2):50-66..

As far as we know, this is the first study with a sample of men and women to investigate independent associations between the amounts of MM and BMC in the performance of the HGS in middle-aged and older Brazilians (Models 6). It is important to understand the influence of these two markers in parallel, since MM represents a current marker and BMC a life course marker⁴⁴44 Aversa Z, Zhang X, Fielding RA, Lanza I, Brasseur NKL. The clinical impact and biological mechanisms of skeletal muscle aging. Bone 2019; 127:26-36.^,5050 Fraser BJ, Blizzard L, Buscot MJ, Schmidt MD, Dwyer T, Venn AJ, Magnussen CG. Muscular strength across the life course: The tracking and trajectory patterns of muscular strength between childhood and mid-adulthood in an Australian cohort. J Sci Med Sport 2021; 24(7):696-701.. Another study that investigated MM and Bone Mineral Density (BMD) exposures, in 97 American overweighted and obese women at the beginning of menopause, found that higher amounts of MM and BMD were associated with higher HGS¹⁸18 Shin H, Liu PY, Panton LB, Ilich JZ. Physical performance in relation to body composition and bone mineral density in healthy, overweight, and obese postmenopausal women. J Geriatr Phys Ther 2014; 37(1):7-16..

Some studies indicate that, with aging, reductions in muscle strength are seen more quickly than a reduction in muscle mass⁵¹51 Goodpaster, BH, Won PS, Harris TB, Kritchevsky SB, Nevitt M, Schwartz AV, Simonsick EM, Tylavsky FA, Visser M, Newman AB. The Loss of Skeletal Muscle Strength, Mass, and Quality in Older Adults: The Health, Aging and Body Composition Study. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2006; 61(10):1059-1064., by a neurological mechanism, such as deficits in neural activation and reductions in the capacity to generate intrinsic strength muscle⁵¹51 Goodpaster, BH, Won PS, Harris TB, Kritchevsky SB, Nevitt M, Schwartz AV, Simonsick EM, Tylavsky FA, Visser M, Newman AB. The Loss of Skeletal Muscle Strength, Mass, and Quality in Older Adults: The Health, Aging and Body Composition Study. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2006; 61(10):1059-1064.

52 Manini TM, Clark BC. Dynapenia and Aging: an update. J Gerontol 2012; 67(1):28-40.^-5353 Clark BC, Manini TM. Sarcopenia ? Dynapenia. J Gerontol 2008; 63(8):829-834.. In addition, losing muscle mass is not always associated with reduced muscle strength, and gaining mass alone may not be a predictor of strength gain⁵¹51 Goodpaster, BH, Won PS, Harris TB, Kritchevsky SB, Nevitt M, Schwartz AV, Simonsick EM, Tylavsky FA, Visser M, Newman AB. The Loss of Skeletal Muscle Strength, Mass, and Quality in Older Adults: The Health, Aging and Body Composition Study. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2006; 61(10):1059-1064.

52 Manini TM, Clark BC. Dynapenia and Aging: an update. J Gerontol 2012; 67(1):28-40.^-5353 Clark BC, Manini TM. Sarcopenia ? Dynapenia. J Gerontol 2008; 63(8):829-834.. However, our findings indicate the greater amount of MM as an important predictor of HGS in men, women and adults, reinforcing that having more muscle mass in adulthood impacts strength, but longitudinal studies are needed to better understand this relationship. As for the elderly, the BMC appears as an important component to predict muscle strength along with the MM, pointing to the need to promote an adequate accumulation of bone mass throughout life with a view to better muscle quality.

Some studies show that excess weight, measured by BMI, may also be influencing BMD⁵⁴54 Evans AL, Paggiosi MA, Eastell R, Walsh JS. Bone Density, Microstructure and Strength in Obese and Normal Weight Men and Women in Younger and Older Adulthood. J Bone Miner Res 2015; 30(5):920-928.^,5555 Dolan E, Swinton PA, Sale C, Healy A, O'Reilly J. Influence of adipose tissue mass on bone mass in an overweight or obese population: systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutr Rev 2017; 75(10):858-870., due to the effect of mechanical overload on the bone⁵⁵55 Dolan E, Swinton PA, Sale C, Healy A, O'Reilly J. Influence of adipose tissue mass on bone mass in an overweight or obese population: systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutr Rev 2017; 75(10):858-870.. In relation to the MM, aging alone causes part of the muscle mass to be replaced by fat mass, and these changes in body composition are potentiated by hormonal differences between the sexes, so that women have a greater proportional amount of fat than men⁵⁶56 Newman AB, Brach JS. Gender Gap in Longevity and Disability in Older Persons. Epidemiol Rev 2001; 23(2):343-355.. However, to remove the effect of body mass on HGS, we adjusted our analyzes by BMI, a factor that is sometimes overlooked⁵⁷57 Külkamp W, Ache-Dias J, Pupo JD. Handgrip strength adjusted for body mass and stratified by age and sex: normative data for healthy Brazilian adults based on a systematic review. Sport Sci Health 2022; 18:1149-1160..

Bone mineral content is a parameter that helps in the assessment and monitoring of bone mass, and corresponds to the amount in grams or kilograms of bone tissue. Bone mineral density, on the other hand, takes into account the size of the bone, and is projected by the importance of the amount in its size in grams of tissue in square centimeters (g/cm²)⁵⁸58 Duan Y, Parfitt MA, Seeman E. Vertebral Bone Mass, Size, and Volumetric Density in Women with Spinal Fractures. J Bone Miner Res 1999; 14(10):1796-1802.^,5959 Ávila-Díaz M, Flores-Huerta S, Martínez-Muñiz I, Amato D. Increments in Whole Body Bone Mineral Content Associated with Weight and Length in Pre-Term and Full-Term Infants During the First 6 Months of Life. Arch Med Res 2001; 32:288-292.. Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) is considered the standard method for detailed assessment of body composition, including bone mass. However, its use in clinical practice has important limitations, such as high cost, low accessibility, need for trained operators, in addition to not being portable, making field evaluations difficult; and exposes participants to a certain amount of ionizing radiation²²22 Macfarlane DJ, Chan NTY, Michael TA, Glen JM. Agreement between bioelectrical impedance and dual energy X-ray absorptiometry in assessing fat, lean and bone mass changes in adults after a lifestyle intervention. J Sports Sci 2016; 34(12):1176-1181.^,2323 Lee LW, Liao YS, Lu HK, Hsiao PL, Chen YY, Chi CC, Hsieh KC. Validation of two portable bioelectrical impedance analyses for the assessment of body composition in school age children. PLoS One 2017; 12(2):e0171568.. Thus, Bioelectrical Impedance (BIA) emerges as an alternative method for assessing body composition²⁶26 Karelis AD, Chamberland G, Aubertin-Leheudre M, Duval C. Ecological mobility in Aging and Parkinson (EMAP) group. Validation of a portable bioelectrical impedance analyzer for the assessment of body composition. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2013; 38(1):27-32.^,2727 McLester CN, Nickerson BS, Kliszczewicz BM, McLester JR. Reliability and Agreement of Various InBody Body Composition Analyzers as Compared to Dual-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry in Healthy Men and Women. J Clin Densitom 2020; 23(3):443-450.. BIA is a simpler, cheaper and non-invasive technique, suitable for use in field studies and larger research, as well as being valid and accurate in the assessment of body composition in healthy individuals⁶⁰60 Böhm A, Heitmann BL. The use of bioelectrical impedance analysis for body composition in epidemiological studies. Eur J Clin Nutr 2013; 67:S79-S85..

Some studies have already reported a high correlation between BMC values obtained by DXA and multifrequency BIA²⁸28 Miyatake N, Tanakai A, Eguchi M, Miyachi M, Tabata I, Numata T. Reference Data of Multi Frequencies Bioelectric Impedance Method in Japanese. Anti-Aging Med 2009; 6(3):10-14.^,2929 Patil BR, Patkar DP, Mandlik SA, Kuswarkar MM, Jinda GD. Estimation of bone mineral content from bioelectrical impedance analysis in Indian adults aged 23-81 years: A comparison with Dual energy X-ray Absorptiometry. Int J Biomedical Engineering Technol 2012; 8(1):99-114.. Although some studies show unfavorable results regarding the use of BIA in the assessment of BMC⁶¹61 Stone TM, Wingo JE, Nickerson BS, Esco MR. Comparison of Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis and Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry for Estimating Bone Mineral Content. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2018; 28(5):542-546.^,6262 Liao YS, Li HC, Lu HK, Lai CL, Wang YS, Hsieh KC. Comparison of Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis and Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry for Total and Segmental Bone Mineral Content with a Three-Compartment Model. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2020; 17(7):2595. this method has received attention as it can be effective in longitudinally monitoring changes in bone mass. Likewise, BIA was presented as a valid method for the assessment of fat-free mass and skeletal muscle mass in Brazilians²⁴24 Augustemak de Lima LR, Rech CR, Petroski EL. Utilização da impedância bioelétrica para estimativa da massa muscular esquelética em homens idosos. Arch Latinoam Nutr 2008; 58(4):386-391.^,2525 Rech CR. Validação de equações antropométricas e de impedância bioelétrica para a estimativa da composição corporal em idosos [dissertação]. Santa Catarina: Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina; 2006.. However, further studies are needed in this area, especially in countries where access to DXA is more difficult²²22 Macfarlane DJ, Chan NTY, Michael TA, Glen JM. Agreement between bioelectrical impedance and dual energy X-ray absorptiometry in assessing fat, lean and bone mass changes in adults after a lifestyle intervention. J Sports Sci 2016; 34(12):1176-1181..

Some limitations need to be considered in our study. First, because it is a cross-sectional analysis, factors that interfere in the peak and accumulation of bone mass or muscle mass may not have been considered, such as maternal factors, growth trajectory, poverty conditions, behaviors and health and diet conditions were not considered. Additionally, MM and BMC were measured by bioelectrical impedance rather than DXA, but studies already show good correlation with DXA²⁴24 Augustemak de Lima LR, Rech CR, Petroski EL. Utilização da impedância bioelétrica para estimativa da massa muscular esquelética em homens idosos. Arch Latinoam Nutr 2008; 58(4):386-391.^,2525 Rech CR. Validação de equações antropométricas e de impedância bioelétrica para a estimativa da composição corporal em idosos [dissertação]. Santa Catarina: Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina; 2006.^,2828 Miyatake N, Tanakai A, Eguchi M, Miyachi M, Tabata I, Numata T. Reference Data of Multi Frequencies Bioelectric Impedance Method in Japanese. Anti-Aging Med 2009; 6(3):10-14.^,2929 Patil BR, Patkar DP, Mandlik SA, Kuswarkar MM, Jinda GD. Estimation of bone mineral content from bioelectrical impedance analysis in Indian adults aged 23-81 years: A comparison with Dual energy X-ray Absorptiometry. Int J Biomedical Engineering Technol 2012; 8(1):99-114.. However, the strength of is the large sample of a multicenter study including individuals with different physiological characteristics and biotypes. In addition, we stratified the analysis by sex and age to better understand the differences in the relationship between HGS and MM and BMC between men and women and adults and elderly. We also tried to remove some of the potential confounding effects of this relationship, such as sociodemographic characteristics, lifestyle and health conditions. Finally, this study was carried out in a developing country, which is undergoing a process of demographic transition, but with difficulties in addressing active aging, mainly due to unfavorable socioeconomic conditions.

Conclusion

In our study, we observed that higher amounts of MM and BMC are associated with higher HGS, regardless of sociodemographic characteristics, health conditions and lifestyle, with this effect being greater in men and adults. When we investigated the independent effect of each exposure, the MM seems to be more related to HGS in women, men and adults then BMC. Our results contribute to and reinforce the importance of a lifelong approach in public health promotion policies, from the fetal period to aging, as an incentive to adequate nutrition and good physical health. This can impact bone and muscle health, with a view to maintaining a good status of these parameters. We also reinforce the importance of strategies that prioritize the maintenance and gain of muscle mass at the current age, to positively impact muscle strength. In clinical practice, our results indicate that HGS, a simple and inexpensive method, can be useful in assessing the individual’s body composition conditions, enabling more effective health interventions.

References

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