Abstract

The history of Latin American society has been influenced by colonization, which has subjugated non-white women to gender violence, racism and sexism. This article discusses the work of female Latin American migrants through the lens of intersectionality to reflect upon the historical and social realities of Latin women who migrate in search of employment or to escape violence. Drawing upon the contributions of the sociologist Patricia Collins, this article discusses the concept of intersectionality and topics pertaining to intersectional analyses (relationality, power relations, social inequality, social context, complexity and social justice). As a critical social theory that is under construction, intersectionality deepens the analysis of oppressions experienced by female migrant workers, such as xenophobia, racism, slave labor, sexual exploitation and precarious working conditions. Thinking about the violence experienced by female Latin American workers from an intersectional perspective implies listening to these women, understanding their resistance, increasing the visibility of collective actions, and guaranteeing the implementation of public policies considering their experiences and perspectives.

Key words:
Intersectional theory; Labor migration; Xenophobia; Racism; Sexism

Introduction

The idea for the debate I propose here arose after reading an article by Patricia Hill Collins titled “Toward a new vision: race, class, and gender as categories of analysis and connection”¹1 Collins PH. Em direção a uma nova visão: raça, classe e gênero como categorias de análise e conexão. In: Moreno R, organizador. Reflexões e práticas de transformação feminista. São Paulo: Coleção Cadernos Sempreviva.; 2015. p. 13-42. and the author’s latest book “Intersectionality as a critical social theory”²2 Collins PH. Bem mais que ideias: a interseccionalidade como teoria social crítica. São Paulo: Boitempo; 2022.. Feeling moved by these titles and having recently studied and researched the work of Latin American migrants, I was led to consider the following questions for this academic dialogue: how do oppressions of gender, race and social class intersect in the lives of female Latin American migrant workers? How can intersectionality help understand the violence suffered by this group?

Patricia Collins, whose writings I have drawn on to compose this text, is a black American who has been researching black feminism and intersectionality for over four decades. The publication of her books in Portuguese has provided access to her scientific output to an increasing number of people in Brazil. Her recent book²2 Collins PH. Bem mais que ideias: a interseccionalidade como teoria social crítica. São Paulo: Boitempo; 2022. advances the use of intersectionality beyond the categorical junctions of social class, race, ethnicity and sexuality, stating that it is “[...] a critical social theory in the making”²2 Collins PH. Bem mais que ideias: a interseccionalidade como teoria social crítica. São Paulo: Boitempo; 2022. (p. 39).

The use of intersectionality as a tool for carrying out complex analyses of social relations is a challenge as it requires the simultaneous analysis of both group privileges and oppressions. Investigation is therefore grounded in critical social theory to “[...] resist social inequalities caused by racism, sexism, capitalism, colonialism, and similar systems of power”²2 Collins PH. Bem mais que ideias: a interseccionalidade como teoria social crítica. São Paulo: Boitempo; 2022. (p. 46). Consequently, it is capable of providing analytical elements that can inform social justice projects and the democratic construction of knowledge²2 Collins PH. Bem mais que ideias: a interseccionalidade como teoria social crítica. São Paulo: Boitempo; 2022..

Regarding female workers who have left their country in pursuit of better living and working conditions, it is necessary to ensure health care based on public policies regardless of the country they are in. In other words, by uncovering the oppressions of the power relations that influence migrant workers in capitalist societies and weaving social critiques of social justice on a macro level of analysis, we can provide inputs to inform the intense and widespread debate over ensuring adequate working conditions free from violence and the protection of workers’ health.

Addressing the challenge of thinking about intersectionality as a theoretical, methodological and political strategy¹1 Collins PH. Em direção a uma nova visão: raça, classe e gênero como categorias de análise e conexão. In: Moreno R, organizador. Reflexões e práticas de transformação feminista. São Paulo: Coleção Cadernos Sempreviva.; 2015. p. 13-42.^,22 Collins PH. Bem mais que ideias: a interseccionalidade como teoria social crítica. São Paulo: Boitempo; 2022., this text discusses the work of Latin American migrants, adopting an intersectional approach to thinking about the historic and social realities of Latin women who migrate in search of work or to escape violence.

I begin by providing a brief outline of intersectionality, followed by a discussion divided into the following sections: social context, oppressions and intersectionality in dialogue with migrant labor; intersectionality and the complexity of violence against female migrant workers; and social justice, dialogue and listening.

What is intersectionality after all?

From the outset, it is important to highlight that the use of intersectionality is complex and, in the words of Collins²2 Collins PH. Bem mais que ideias: a interseccionalidade como teoria social crítica. São Paulo: Boitempo; 2022., it is impossible to cover the concept in a single article. To this end, I provide a succinct summary of intersectionality and some core themes based on Collins and Bilge³3 Collins PH, Bilge S. Interseccionalidade. São Paulo: Boitempo Editorial; 2021. (relationality, power relations, social inequality, social context, complexity and social justice) to demonstrate the different intersectional approaches. These interrelated constructs are synthesized in Chart 1 below.

In light of this somewhat brief outline, it is evident that intersectionality requires the dynamics of historicity, in which oppressions are articulated with context and social inequalities in a critical and complex manner to carry out social justice²2 Collins PH. Bem mais que ideias: a interseccionalidade como teoria social crítica. São Paulo: Boitempo; 2022.^,33 Collins PH, Bilge S. Interseccionalidade. São Paulo: Boitempo Editorial; 2021..

Hence the use of intersectionality in the triad of migration of Latin women, work and violence allows us to understand the complexities of the lives of female workers within a society to this day influenced by the historical process of colonization. The adversities faced during the migration process are more or less intensified depending on social context and intersecting oppressions of gender, race and class, meaning that poor, black and indigenous female workers are pushed into precarious employment⁴4 Andrade CB, Santos DL, Bitercourt SM, Vedovato TG. Migrações, trabalho de cuidado e saúde de cuidadoras: revisão integrativa. Rev Bras Saude Ocup 2022; 47:e10.^,55 Mora C, Undurraga EA. Racialisation of immigrants at work: labour mobility and segmentation of Peruvian migrants in Chile. Bull Lat Am Res 2013; 32(3):294-310., sustaining capitalist exploitation in the Global South⁶6 Gonzalez L. Por um feminismo afro-latino-americano: ensaios, intervenções e diálogos. Rio de Janeiro: Zahar; 2020., as we will see below.

Social context, oppressions and intersectionality in dialogue with migrant labor

In intersectional inquiry, people are seen as having identities and historical and social experiences are intertwined with power relations. When analyzing different oppressions, the challenge is to not hierarchize them, even though some may stand out, depending on established privileges¹1 Collins PH. Em direção a uma nova visão: raça, classe e gênero como categorias de análise e conexão. In: Moreno R, organizador. Reflexões e práticas de transformação feminista. São Paulo: Coleção Cadernos Sempreviva.; 2015. p. 13-42.. As such, the key point I take for discussing the work of Latin American migrants is that intersectionality, as a critical social theory that is constantly under construction, is intimately linked to the analysis of racism, sexism, patriarchy and colonialism in capitalist societies²2 Collins PH. Bem mais que ideias: a interseccionalidade como teoria social crítica. São Paulo: Boitempo; 2022..

The historicity of capitalism is central in this dialogue as societies influenced by the process of slavery remain racist, classist and patriarchal¹1 Collins PH. Em direção a uma nova visão: raça, classe e gênero como categorias de análise e conexão. In: Moreno R, organizador. Reflexões e práticas de transformação feminista. São Paulo: Coleção Cadernos Sempreviva.; 2015. p. 13-42.. Latin American history is characterized by colonial violence, which subjugated African and indigenous peoples to the domination of knowledge, power, being⁷7 Quijano A. Colonialidade do poder, eurocentrismo e América Latina. Clacso 2005; 27:117-142. and gender relations⁸8 Lugones M. Colonialidade e gênero. In: Hollanda HB, Varejão A, organizadores. Pensamento feminista hoje: perspectivas decoloniais. Rio de Janeiro: Bazar do Tempo; 2020. p. 53-83., with female Latin American workers still suffering from the oppressions of racism, sexism, patriarchy and poverty.

The effects of coloniality persist, principally through the living history of racism and gender violence experienced by women. This approach is looked at in-depth by Rita Segato⁹9 Segato RL. La guerra contra las mujeres. Madrid: Traficantes de Sueños; 2016., who analyzes high-intensity colonial patriarchy, through which masculine powers are expressed on feminine and feminized bodies in various forms of lethal or non-lethal violence.

Also central is the racial perspective explored by black Brazilian intellectual Lélia Gonzalez⁶6 Gonzalez L. Por um feminismo afro-latino-americano: ensaios, intervenções e diálogos. Rio de Janeiro: Zahar; 2020., who highlights sexual and racial division of labor, which places black women in lower-status, low-paying jobs without workers’ rights. For the capitalist mode of production, these women are the “workhorses”¹⁰10 Gonzaléz L. Por um feminismo afro-latino-americano. In: Hollanda HB, organizador. Pensamento feminista hoje: perspectivas decolonais. Rio de Janeiro: Bazar do Tempo; 2020. p. 38-51. (p. 49), affirming the over exploitation of black Latin American women by capitalism¹⁰10 Gonzaléz L. Por um feminismo afro-latino-americano. In: Hollanda HB, organizador. Pensamento feminista hoje: perspectivas decolonais. Rio de Janeiro: Bazar do Tempo; 2020. p. 38-51..

A study of Peruvian female migrant workers with indigenous ancestry in Chile delves deeper into the racial division of labor. Hired because of their work availability and loyalty, these women are at the same time stigmatized as “backward”, reproducing labor trajectories characterized by labor market segregation, low-paid jobs with poor working conditions and racial violence⁵5 Mora C, Undurraga EA. Racialisation of immigrants at work: labour mobility and segmentation of Peruvian migrants in Chile. Bull Lat Am Res 2013; 32(3):294-310..

This aspect affirms the racialization of the world of work from a historical perspective⁶6 Gonzalez L. Por um feminismo afro-latino-americano: ensaios, intervenções e diálogos. Rio de Janeiro: Zahar; 2020.^,88 Lugones M. Colonialidade e gênero. In: Hollanda HB, Varejão A, organizadores. Pensamento feminista hoje: perspectivas decoloniais. Rio de Janeiro: Bazar do Tempo; 2020. p. 53-83., whereby low-status precarious jobs are allocated to black and indigenous women since they have faced various types of informal activities permeated by racial violence⁶6 Gonzalez L. Por um feminismo afro-latino-americano: ensaios, intervenções e diálogos. Rio de Janeiro: Zahar; 2020.. Associated with the above, sociocultural differences and perceptions of racism are themes of intersectional inquiry. Interviews with African refugee women in Brazil show that these themes express the racial violence through which the “successful colonization process”¹¹11 Santos LA, Mattos AR. "A colonização foi muito perfeita aqui": reflexões de refugiadas africanas no Brasil. Arq Bras Psicol Rio J 2020; 72(esp.):170-184. makes them feel racism in their daily lives, resulting in psychic suffering¹¹11 Santos LA, Mattos AR. "A colonização foi muito perfeita aqui": reflexões de refugiadas africanas no Brasil. Arq Bras Psicol Rio J 2020; 72(esp.):170-184.(p. 175).

While migration provides access to the labor market, studies reveal the increasing feminization of migration for employment purposes over recent decades (women now account for 51.6% of migrants in Latin America) without ensuring adequate working conditions for these women¹²12 Internacional Labour Organization (ILO). La migración laboral en América Latina y el Caribe. Diagnóstico, estrategia y líneas de trabajo de la OIT en la Región. Lima: ILO; 2016.. Most are in an irregular situation, working in informal jobs in the service sector without social and workers’ rights, rarely participating in unions and subject to precarious and insecure working conditions, including irregular and even non-payment of wages¹²12 Internacional Labour Organization (ILO). La migración laboral en América Latina y el Caribe. Diagnóstico, estrategia y líneas de trabajo de la OIT en la Región. Lima: ILO; 2016.. It is therefore non-white poor women who tend to seek better life conditions, reinforcing the need to migrate⁴4 Andrade CB, Santos DL, Bitercourt SM, Vedovato TG. Migrações, trabalho de cuidado e saúde de cuidadoras: revisão integrativa. Rev Bras Saude Ocup 2022; 47:e10..

Not without reason, the complexity and social context of the lives of female Latin America workers places them in situations of violence, especially when they are vulnerable due to their irregular immigration status (lack of documents or refugee status) or working in precarious and informal employment: “In refugee reception centers the overwhelming majority [of refugees] are black women from African countries, who, in face of the context of scarce opportunities to access the formal market, end up being employed in subaltern jobs”¹¹11 Santos LA, Mattos AR. "A colonização foi muito perfeita aqui": reflexões de refugiadas africanas no Brasil. Arq Bras Psicol Rio J 2020; 72(esp.):170-184. (p. 176).

Leaving the country, for whatever reason, places the women on an often unexpected path, encountering language barriers in the country of destination, non-validation of school and college diplomas and experiencing xenophobia. However, these women recognize their knowledge, intellectuality, rights and resistance¹¹11 Santos LA, Mattos AR. "A colonização foi muito perfeita aqui": reflexões de refugiadas africanas no Brasil. Arq Bras Psicol Rio J 2020; 72(esp.):170-184.. When casting light on intersectionality, immigration status is an important element in the context and oppressions among workers, as experiences of migration are by no means homogeneous. Nationality and immigration status may contribute to vulnerability, with undocumented migrants being more likely to be employed and remain in precarious jobs, generally in caregiving⁴4 Andrade CB, Santos DL, Bitercourt SM, Vedovato TG. Migrações, trabalho de cuidado e saúde de cuidadoras: revisão integrativa. Rev Bras Saude Ocup 2022; 47:e10. or sex work¹³13 Cabezas AL. Mulheres dominicanas invisíveis: discursos de tráfico de pessoas em Porto Rico. Cad Pagu 2016; 47:e16477..

The theoretical and methodological advances made by Collins²2 Collins PH. Bem mais que ideias: a interseccionalidade como teoria social crítica. São Paulo: Boitempo; 2022. refer to the interconnections of relations of oppression that extend beyond thinking that suggests categories of gender, race and social class are static and permanent: “Intersectionality postulates that systems of power mutually coproduce one another, reproducing both unequal material outcomes and distinct social experiences that characterize personal experiences according to social hierarchies” (p. 71)²2 Collins PH. Bem mais que ideias: a interseccionalidade como teoria social crítica. São Paulo: Boitempo; 2022..

Thus, given the complex social context of female migrant workers, public policies are needed to tackle violence. Migration for economic reasons, i.e. to find employment to support the family, is common among Latin American women as it is the poorest and most vulnerable who migrate to attain better living conditions. When it comes to caregiving occupations and domestic services, women also face the challenge of leaving their children in the care of other women in their country of origin, which can lead to feelings of fear, guilt, homesickness and concern⁴4 Andrade CB, Santos DL, Bitercourt SM, Vedovato TG. Migrações, trabalho de cuidado e saúde de cuidadoras: revisão integrativa. Rev Bras Saude Ocup 2022; 47:e10..

Intersectionality and the complexity of violence against female migrant workers

The use of intersectionality allows us to critically analyze and complexify the violence suffered by female migrants, especially non-white women. As mentioned above, from a historical perspective of slavery, black women have been disproportionately affected by poverty, intersecting oppressions, labor market segregation and unemployment when compared to white men and women. Depending on their immigration status, migrants who suffer domestic violence are often reluctant to report abuse due to the threat of deportation and cultural and language barriers¹⁴14 Crenshaw KW. Mapping the margins: intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Rev 1991; 6:1241-1299..

Migrants face sexual violence and human trafficking for sexual exploitation¹⁵15 Bidaseca K. Fuga contra violencia sexual, potlatch y derechos humanos. Ensayo sobre la moneda y el exilio del mundo. Rev Soc 2016; 35-36:13-31., xenophobia and racism⁴4 Andrade CB, Santos DL, Bitercourt SM, Vedovato TG. Migrações, trabalho de cuidado e saúde de cuidadoras: revisão integrativa. Rev Bras Saude Ocup 2022; 47:e10.^,1111 Santos LA, Mattos AR. "A colonização foi muito perfeita aqui": reflexões de refugiadas africanas no Brasil. Arq Bras Psicol Rio J 2020; 72(esp.):170-184.^,1313 Cabezas AL. Mulheres dominicanas invisíveis: discursos de tráfico de pessoas em Porto Rico. Cad Pagu 2016; 47:e16477.^,1616 Linardelli MF. Mujeres migrantes y violencia en Argentina: experiencias e implicancias en la salud/enfermedad/cuidado. Rev Katálysis 2021; 24(2):342-352., placing their health and life at constant risk. Studies have shown that gender violence is common and often one of the reasons for migration¹⁶16 Linardelli MF. Mujeres migrantes y violencia en Argentina: experiencias e implicancias en la salud/enfermedad/cuidado. Rev Katálysis 2021; 24(2):342-352.^,1717 Romero M. Experiences of gender violence in Bolivian migrant women residing in Tarapacá, Chile. Estud Front 2022; 23:e085.. Furthermore, border regions in Latin America are characterized by conflict, violence and high rates of femicide. Between 2000 and 2015 there were 1,384 deaths of women in Brazil’s 122 border towns, including 181 indigenous women¹⁸18 Meneghel SN, Danilevicz IM, Polidoro M, Plentz LM, Meneghetti BP. Femicide in borderline Brazilian municipalities. Cien Saude Colet 2022; 27(2):493-502..

Despite the complex, historical and interconnected nature of patriarchal violence, xenophobia and racism, studies on the influence of these factors on the life and health of women migrants are scarce. Most of these women face discrimination, structural and institutional violence and sexual abuse and harassment across all social spaces, including the workplace. This violence affects their health, being manifested in sadness, anger, fear fatigue etc.⁴4 Andrade CB, Santos DL, Bitercourt SM, Vedovato TG. Migrações, trabalho de cuidado e saúde de cuidadoras: revisão integrativa. Rev Bras Saude Ocup 2022; 47:e10.^,1616 Linardelli MF. Mujeres migrantes y violencia en Argentina: experiencias e implicancias en la salud/enfermedad/cuidado. Rev Katálysis 2021; 24(2):342-352.

Violence is exacerbated in cases of trafficking of Latin American women for sexual exploitation, which occurs among migrants. This means that, besides femicide, the health of these women is intimately linked with numerous experiences of physical, psychological, moral and sexual violence. It is not uncommon for these women to suffer from mental health problems and be more susceptible to sexually transmitted diseases. They also encounter barriers in accessing health care and suffer institutional violence within health services, prompted by the social stigma of being seen as “trafficked”¹⁹19 Andrade CB, Bitercourt SM. Tráfico de mulheres latino-americanas para a exploração sexual: aspectos de violências e saúde sob a perspectiva decolonial. In: Jubilut LL, Garcez GS, Lopes RO, Fernandes AP, Silva JCJ, organizadores. Direitos humanos e vulnerabilidade e migrações forçadas. Boa Vista: Editora da UFRR; 2022. p. 1102-1125..

Bringing intersectionality to this debate helps unveil intersecting inequalities in the dynamic relationship between violence and health. While violence may be heterogenous, its effects on the lives of migrants is undeniable. It is therefore necessary to discuss how historical factors and coloniality shape racism and other types of violence to think about and deliver health care, especially when it comes to developing public policies²⁰20 Shannon G, Morgan R, Zeinali Z, Brady L, Couto MT, Devakumar D, Eder B, Karadag O, Mukherjee M, Peres MFT, Ryngelblum M, Sabharwal N, Schonfield A, Silwane P, Singh D, Van Ryneveld M, Vilakati S, Watego C, Whyle E, Muraya K. Intersectional insights into racism and health: not just a question of identity. Lancet 2022; 400(10368):2125-2136..

It is also important to expand the perspective of work and its historicity in Latin America, as the development of capitalism has been and continues to be intimately linked with racism and the racial division of labor, which subjugates the black population to low-status, low-paid and therefore precarious jobs⁶6 Gonzalez L. Por um feminismo afro-latino-americano: ensaios, intervenções e diálogos. Rio de Janeiro: Zahar; 2020.^,77 Quijano A. Colonialidade do poder, eurocentrismo e América Latina. Clacso 2005; 27:117-142.. According to the literature, Latin American migrants employed in caregiving work exhausting hours. This is associated with lack of documentation, which means they tend to work in informal employment without access to workers’ rights and the health system in the country of origin. Poor working conditions have an impact on migrants’ lives, often causing anxiety, depression and musculoskeletal disorders, among other problems, meaning there is a need to guarantee access to the health system and job security in migration processes⁴4 Andrade CB, Santos DL, Bitercourt SM, Vedovato TG. Migrações, trabalho de cuidado e saúde de cuidadoras: revisão integrativa. Rev Bras Saude Ocup 2022; 47:e10..

Intersectionality therefore provides theoretical and methodological resources to inform an approach to health care that engages historical, social, political and economic perspectives to promote equity based on social class, gender, race/ethnicity, territory, nationality²⁰20 Shannon G, Morgan R, Zeinali Z, Brady L, Couto MT, Devakumar D, Eder B, Karadag O, Mukherjee M, Peres MFT, Ryngelblum M, Sabharwal N, Schonfield A, Silwane P, Singh D, Van Ryneveld M, Vilakati S, Watego C, Whyle E, Muraya K. Intersectional insights into racism and health: not just a question of identity. Lancet 2022; 400(10368):2125-2136. etc. In addition, with regard to female migrant workers, intersectionality not only examines the interconnections between oppressions, it also evidences the need to consider the specificities of each one, especially when the effects of immigration status (economic migrant or refugee) and nationality on everyday life experiences and health are articulated. In the words of Collins, intersectionality is a fruitful avenue of investigation because, by looking at our history, we can move forward towards ethics and democracy³3 Collins PH, Bilge S. Interseccionalidade. São Paulo: Boitempo Editorial; 2021..

Social justice, dialogue and listening

As we appropriate intersectionality, the discussion of social justice becomes one of the most complex aspects, because it requires political praxis and criticism³. As one of the possible discussions, here I take the perspective of academic knowledge to think about the violence suffered by Latin American female workers in the direction of social justice.

First, the intersectional perspective provides insights to help understand the singularities and diversity of women, their resistance and the collective actions they develop through the course of their life and work trajectories in response to oppressions. Second, the proposition of public health and labor policies requires policy makers to listen to the voices of female migrants. While academic knowledge sometimes attempts to bring itself closer to the reality of vulnerable social groups, I have to agree with Collins when she says: “Our personal biographies offer us a partial view”³3 Collins PH, Bilge S. Interseccionalidade. São Paulo: Boitempo Editorial; 2021. (p. 36) of the reality in which we are embedded.

For this reason, establishing an academic dialogue with migrant women is to collaborate in the ethical formation of knowledge, or in other words knowledge that involves listening and is intimately linked to the demands of this heterogenous social group, with a view to collectively building fundamental agendas to guarantee health and workers’ rights and non-violence. As Collins and Bilge propose, prioritizing collective initiatives with public participation to confront intersecting oppressions and produce ethical knowledge is to further social justice³3 Collins PH, Bilge S. Interseccionalidade. São Paulo: Boitempo Editorial; 2021.. From an academic viewpoint, it is necessary to engage in dialogue with social movements to build knowledge, encouraging new forms of thinking and doing human emancipation and guaranteeing rights.

By complexifying the confrontations of workers in the face of violence before, during and after the migration process, intersectionality provides the opportunity to set public policy agendas to guarantee health, employment and violence prevention. Ensuring that migrants have access to health care in any region should be viewed as a fundamental human right.

References

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