Abstract

The article aims to identify stage of the food supply chain (FSC) has the greatest food loss and waste (FLW), the factors that influence and economic, social and environmental impacts in Latin America countries. We carried out a scoping review of observational studies, case reports and interventional studies in January 2023. Searches were performed in scientific databases and hand-searching of reference lists. Data on the included studies were summarized with narrative synthesis. In total 16 articles met the inclusion criteria. The greatest FLW occur in the early and middle stages of the FSC, mainly during storage. The main causes were connected to financial, managerial and operational limitations related in harvesting techniques, storage and cooling facilities, infrastructure and marketing systems. Food waste (FW) is also a result of lack of appropriate storage facilities and efficient transport systems, market fluctuations and systems. Only one study presented results on the environmental impact of FW. There is a higher occurrence of food loss, characterized by decrease in the quantity and quality of food in the first three stages of FSC.

Key words:
Food Loss; Food Waste; Food supply chain; Food production; Latin America

Resumo

O objetivo do artigo é identificar etapa da cadeia de abastecimento de alimentos (CAA) com maior perda e desperdício de alimentos (PDA), os fatores que influenciam e os impactos econômicos, sociais e ambientais nos países da América Latina. Realizamos revisão de escopo de estudos observacionais, relatos de caso e estudos intervencionais em janeiro de 2023. As buscas foram realizadas em bases de dados científicas e busca manual de listas de referências. Os dados dos estudos incluídos foram resumidos com síntese narrativa. No total, 16 artigos atenderam aos critérios de elegibilidade. As maiores PDA ocorrem nas fases inicial e intermediária do CAA, principalmente durante o armazenamento. Principais causas das perdas eram financeiras, gerenciais e operacionais relacionadas a técnicas de colheita, instalações de armazenamento e resfriamento, infraestrutura e sistemas de comercialização. Desperdício é resultado da falta de instalações de armazenamento adequadas e sistemas de transporte eficientes, flutuações de mercado e de sistemas. Um estudo apresentou resultados sobre o impacto ambiental das perdas. Há maior ocorrência de perdas alimentares, caracterizadas pela diminuição da quantidade e qualidade dos alimentos nas etapas iniciais da CAA.

Palavras-chave:
Perda de alimentos; Desperdício de alimentos; Cadeia de Abastecimento de Alimentos; Produção de Alimentos; América Latina

Introduction

Almost one third of the total food production on the globe is discarded as food loss and/or waste (FLW)¹1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf.
https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... . The recent report by the United Nations Environment Programme (PNUA) estimates that in 2019 around 931 million tons of food were wasted. This suggests that 17% of total global food production can be wasted²2 United Nations Environment Programme. Food Waste Index Report 2021. Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme; 2021.. Food loss (FL) refers to decrease in the amount and quality of the edible part of food produced for human consumption in the first three stages of the food supply chain (FSC), namely: production, post-harvest and processing, whereas food waste (FW) refers to the final stages of FSC: distribution/retail and consumption¹1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf.
https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... ^,33 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Definitional Framework of Food Loss [Internet]. 2014 [cites 2022 out 15]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/at144e/at144e.pdf.
https://www.fao.org/3/at144e/at144e.pdf... ^,44 Ishangulyyev R, Kim S, Lee SH. Understanding Food Loss and Waste-Why Are We Losing and Wasting Food? Foods 2019; 8:297..

The amount of FLW varies between countries, since it is influenced by income, urbanization and economic growth level⁵5 Chalak A, Abou-Daher C, Chaaban J, Abiad MG. The global economic and regulatory determinants of household food waste generation: A cross-country analysis. Waste Management 2016; 48:418-422.. Food is mostly lost during production, post-harvest, processing and distribution in low-income countries, and the smallest fraction of it is wasted at consumer level¹1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf.
https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... ^,66 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Food wastage footprint: impacts on natural resources: summary report [Internet]. Rome: FAO; 2013 [cited 2022 out 15]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i3347e/i3347e.pdf..

Given such challenging scenario it is necessary to understand that FLW reduction strategies must be region-specific; they should be adapted to local situations (e.g., energy limitation, infrastructure limitation), and target FL, that occurs mainly in developing countries, and FW, that occurs in developed countries, in order to properly manage the several barriers⁷7 Shafiee-Jood M, Cai X. Reducing Food Loss and Waste to Enhance Food Security and Environmental Sustainability. Environ Sci Technol 2016; 50:8432-8443..

FLW reduction is a priority in the global political agenda due to its impact on food security; natural environmental resources, mainly land, water, and energy; and human health⁷7 Shafiee-Jood M, Cai X. Reducing Food Loss and Waste to Enhance Food Security and Environmental Sustainability. Environ Sci Technol 2016; 50:8432-8443.^,88 Xue L, Liu G, Parfitt J, Liu X, Van Herpen E, Stenmarck Å, O'Connor C, Östergren K, Cheng S. Missing Food, Missing Data? A Critical Review of Global Food Losses and Food Waste Data. Environ Sci Technol 2017; 51:6618-6633.. The literature highlights the need of paying closer attention to countries Latin America, outside the United States and European countries, mainly to large developing countries and emerging economies, since they have less FLW information available, although, assumingly, they must account for large amounts of it⁸8 Xue L, Liu G, Parfitt J, Liu X, Van Herpen E, Stenmarck Å, O'Connor C, Östergren K, Cheng S. Missing Food, Missing Data? A Critical Review of Global Food Losses and Food Waste Data. Environ Sci Technol 2017; 51:6618-6633.^,99 Fabi C, Cachia F, Conforti, P, English A, Moncayo JR. Improving data on food losses and waste: from theory to practice. Food Policy 2021; 98:101934..

The aim of the present scoping review is to better understand the FLW process in Latin American countries, considering the four stages (production, post-harvest, processing and distribution/retail) of the food supply chain (FSC) which are the stages of greatest loss in low-income countries¹1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf.
https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... ^,66 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Food wastage footprint: impacts on natural resources: summary report [Internet]. Rome: FAO; 2013 [cited 2022 out 15]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i3347e/i3347e.pdf.. Clearly understanding FLW is essential, given the scarcity of data about it in developing countries, mainly in Latin America⁹9 Fabi C, Cachia F, Conforti, P, English A, Moncayo JR. Improving data on food losses and waste: from theory to practice. Food Policy 2021; 98:101934.^,1010 Kitinoja L, Kader AA. Measuring postharvest losses of fresh fruits and vegetables in developing countries. PEF White Pap 2015; 15:26.. This shall help organizing the few data available, identifying the existing gaps and observing the direct efforts to prevent and reduce FLW in Latin America. The goal is to answer the following questions:

Methods

Scoping review of observational, case report and interventional studies about FW and FL in Latin American countries was carried out. Latin America is composed of 20 countries, namely: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Dominican Republic, Uruguay and Venezuela. It recorded human development index of 0.766, back in 2019¹¹11 Conceição P. Human Development Report 2020. The next frontier Human development and the Anthropocene [Internet]. [cited 2022 out 15]. Available from: http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf.
http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/... .

The current scoping review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines and the recommendation in the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions¹²12 Higgins JPT, Thomas J, Chandler J, Cumpston M, Li T, Page MJ, Welch VA, editors. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. 2ª ed. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons; 2019.. The SPIDER criteria (Sample, Phenomenon of Interest, Design, Evaluation and Research Type) were used to define the research question¹³13 Methley AM, Campbell S, Chew-Graham C, McNally R, Cheraghi-Sohi S. PICO, PICOS and SPIDER: a comparison study of specificity and sensitivity in three search tools for qualitative systematic reviews. BMC Health Serv Res 2014; 14:579. (Chart 1).

We selected all studies that met the inclusion criteria for the conduction of the present study in January 2023.

Search Strategy

Searches were performed in the PubMed, EMBASE, SCOPUS, Web of Science, Agricola, EBSCO’S Academic Search Ultimate, Cab Direct databases. They concerned articles and the hand-searching of reference lists unpublished articles and thesis repositories were also used as data sources. Publication date and language were not used as exclusion criteria. The adopted keywords were food waste, food loss, garbage, waste management, food wastefulness, waste prevention, food wastage, food waste quantification, food waste reporting, amount of food waste. Search strategies used in each database are described in Chart 2.

Inclusion criteria

Observational studies, case reports and interventional studies about food loss and food waste generation were used to quantify and assess factors influencing the impacts of destiny and initiatives to reduce FLW in Latin American countries. Comments and general reviews were excluded from the search, in the first moment.

Articles’ selection, data-collection process and data items

Titles and abstracts were read, in duplicate, by two appraisers (BVLC and NGC) in order to apply the inclusion criteria - disagreements were solved by consensus. The ENDNOTE X9 software was used in titles and abstracts’ reading.

Data were independently extracted in duplicate by two appraisers (BVLC and NGC). Data included year when the study was performed and reported; language; study design; location of study; food under study; food supply chain stage when the greatest loss was recorded; FLW amount; FLW influence factors; economic, social and environmental impacts; FLW destination and initiatives to reduce FLW in Latin American countries.

We adapted the instrument to assess the quality of articles, Newcastle-Ottawa (NOS), as we did not find a specific instrument suitable for our type of study. However, two authors (BVLC and NGC) have assessed only three relevant article-quality domains: a) using validated measurement tool or secondary data (Selection section - item 4), b) clearly and properly describing the statistical test for data analysis (Outcome section - item 2), c) complete results consistent with the methodology (Comparability section). For each domain, 1 point was assigned, with the final score corresponding to the general quality of the article. Thus, score 1 refers to low quality (adequacy in only one domain) and score 3 attributes better methodological quality (adequacy in all three domains). Differences in data quality assessment scores, seen as uncommon between appraisers, were solved by consensus, or by a third author.

Results and discussion

In total, 1,464 citations were identified in the assessed databases (Figure 1). After titles and abstracts’ reading, 25 references were considered eligible for the review; therefore, they were read in full. We added four articles found through the hand-searching of reference lists to the sample. Unpublished articles and thesis were not found. In total, 16 articles¹1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf.
https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... ^,1414 Mendoza JR, Sabillón L, Martinez W, Campabadal C, Hallen-Adams HE, Bianchini A. Traditional maize post-harvest management practices amongst smallholder farmers in Guatemala. J Stored Products Res 2017; 71:14-21.

15 Quellhorst HE, Njoroge A, Venort T, Baributsa D. Postharvest Management of Grains in Haiti and Gender Roles. Sustainability 2020; 12:4608.

16 Arends-Kuenning M, Garcias M, Kamei A, Shikida PFA, Romani GE. Factors associated with the harvest and postharvest loss among soybean farmers in Western Paraná State, Brazil. Food Policy 2022; 112:102363.

17 Conte O, Possamai EJ, Filho Cecere P. Resultados do monitoramento integrado da colheita da solja na safra 2019/2020 no Paraná [Internet]. 2020 [acessado 2023 mar 15]. Disponível em: https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicacoes/-/publicacao/1130138/resultados-do-monitoramento-integrado-da-colheita-da-soja-na-safra-20192020-no-parana.
https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicac...

18 Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). 2013 Project on Master Plan Study for Integrated Solid Waste Management in Bogota, D.C. Final Report [Internet]. [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12126835.pdf.
https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12...

19 Santos SF, Cardoso RCV, Borges ÍMP, Almeida AC, Andrade ES, Ferreira IO, Ramos LC. Post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables in supply centers in Salvador, Brazil: Analysis of determinants, volumes and reduction strategies. Waste Management 2020; 101:161-170.

20 Silva DEW, César AS, Conejero MA. Prevention of food waste and alternative destinations for unused food in Brazil. J Cleaner Production 2021; 318:128545.

21 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. The Reality of Food Losses a New Measurement Methodology [Internet]. IFPRI; 2017 [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/default/files/the_reality_of_food_losses_a_new_measurement_methodology.pdf.
https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/d...

22 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. Quantity and quality food losses across the value Chain: A Comparative analysis. Food Policy 2021; 98:101958.

23 Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC). Characterization and Management of Food Loss and Waste in North America. Montreal: CEC; 2017.

24 Chaboud G. Assessing food losses and waste with a methodological framework: Insights from a case study. Resources Conservation Recycling 2017; 125:188-197.

25 Chaboud G, Moustier P. The role of diverse distribution channels in reducing food loss and waste: The case of the Cali tomate supply chain in Colombia. Food Policy 2021; 98:101881.

26 Dal' Magro GP, Talamini E. Estimating the magnitude of the food loss and waste generated in Brazil. Waste Manag Res 2019; 37:706-716.

27 Velasco C, Ordinola M, Devaux A. Una aproximación a la medición de pérdidas de alimento en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador y Perú. Rev Latinoam Papa 2019; 23(2):46-65.^-2828 Bedoya-Perales NS, Dal'Magro GP. Quantification of food losses and waste in Peru: A Mass flow analysis along the Food Supply Chain. Sustainability 2021; 13:2807. met the inclusion criteria, so they were included in the present scoping review.

The features of the selected studies are shown in Chart 3. Fourteen (14) of the 16 eligible articles had followed the cross-sectional design, two of them were case reports - no interventional trial was identified. Five (5) of the selected studies had evaluated Brazilian data¹⁶16 Arends-Kuenning M, Garcias M, Kamei A, Shikida PFA, Romani GE. Factors associated with the harvest and postharvest loss among soybean farmers in Western Paraná State, Brazil. Food Policy 2022; 112:102363.^,1717 Conte O, Possamai EJ, Filho Cecere P. Resultados do monitoramento integrado da colheita da solja na safra 2019/2020 no Paraná [Internet]. 2020 [acessado 2023 mar 15]. Disponível em: https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicacoes/-/publicacao/1130138/resultados-do-monitoramento-integrado-da-colheita-da-soja-na-safra-20192020-no-parana.
https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicac... ^,1919 Santos SF, Cardoso RCV, Borges ÍMP, Almeida AC, Andrade ES, Ferreira IO, Ramos LC. Post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables in supply centers in Salvador, Brazil: Analysis of determinants, volumes and reduction strategies. Waste Management 2020; 101:161-170.^,2020 Silva DEW, César AS, Conejero MA. Prevention of food waste and alternative destinations for unused food in Brazil. J Cleaner Production 2021; 318:128545.^,2626 Dal' Magro GP, Talamini E. Estimating the magnitude of the food loss and waste generated in Brazil. Waste Manag Res 2019; 37:706-716., and the others referred to studies carried out in Guatemala (n=1)¹⁴14 Mendoza JR, Sabillón L, Martinez W, Campabadal C, Hallen-Adams HE, Bianchini A. Traditional maize post-harvest management practices amongst smallholder farmers in Guatemala. J Stored Products Res 2017; 71:14-21., Haiti (n=1)¹⁶16 Arends-Kuenning M, Garcias M, Kamei A, Shikida PFA, Romani GE. Factors associated with the harvest and postharvest loss among soybean farmers in Western Paraná State, Brazil. Food Policy 2022; 112:102363., Colombia (n=3)¹⁸18 Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). 2013 Project on Master Plan Study for Integrated Solid Waste Management in Bogota, D.C. Final Report [Internet]. [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12126835.pdf.
https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12... ^,2424 Chaboud G. Assessing food losses and waste with a methodological framework: Insights from a case study. Resources Conservation Recycling 2017; 125:188-197.^,2525 Chaboud G, Moustier P. The role of diverse distribution channels in reducing food loss and waste: The case of the Cali tomate supply chain in Colombia. Food Policy 2021; 98:101881., Mexico (n=1)²³23 Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC). Characterization and Management of Food Loss and Waste in North America. Montreal: CEC; 2017., Peru (n=1)²⁸28 Bedoya-Perales NS, Dal'Magro GP. Quantification of food losses and waste in Peru: A Mass flow analysis along the Food Supply Chain. Sustainability 2021; 13:2807., Ecuador and Peru (n=1)²⁷27 Velasco C, Ordinola M, Devaux A. Una aproximación a la medición de pérdidas de alimento en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador y Perú. Rev Latinoam Papa 2019; 23(2):46-65., Ecuador, Peru, Honduras and Guatemala (n=2)²¹21 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. The Reality of Food Losses a New Measurement Methodology [Internet]. IFPRI; 2017 [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/default/files/the_reality_of_food_losses_a_new_measurement_methodology.pdf.
https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/d... ^,2222 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. Quantity and quality food losses across the value Chain: A Comparative analysis. Food Policy 2021; 98:101958., and Latin America (n=1)¹1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf.
https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... . Farmers and traders (n=9)¹1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf.
https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... ^,2121 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. The Reality of Food Losses a New Measurement Methodology [Internet]. IFPRI; 2017 [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/default/files/the_reality_of_food_losses_a_new_measurement_methodology.pdf.
https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/d...

22 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. Quantity and quality food losses across the value Chain: A Comparative analysis. Food Policy 2021; 98:101958.

23 Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC). Characterization and Management of Food Loss and Waste in North America. Montreal: CEC; 2017.

24 Chaboud G. Assessing food losses and waste with a methodological framework: Insights from a case study. Resources Conservation Recycling 2017; 125:188-197.

25 Chaboud G, Moustier P. The role of diverse distribution channels in reducing food loss and waste: The case of the Cali tomate supply chain in Colombia. Food Policy 2021; 98:101881.

26 Dal' Magro GP, Talamini E. Estimating the magnitude of the food loss and waste generated in Brazil. Waste Manag Res 2019; 37:706-716.

27 Velasco C, Ordinola M, Devaux A. Una aproximación a la medición de pérdidas de alimento en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador y Perú. Rev Latinoam Papa 2019; 23(2):46-65.^-2828 Bedoya-Perales NS, Dal'Magro GP. Quantification of food losses and waste in Peru: A Mass flow analysis along the Food Supply Chain. Sustainability 2021; 13:2807.; only farmers (n=4)¹⁴14 Mendoza JR, Sabillón L, Martinez W, Campabadal C, Hallen-Adams HE, Bianchini A. Traditional maize post-harvest management practices amongst smallholder farmers in Guatemala. J Stored Products Res 2017; 71:14-21.

15 Quellhorst HE, Njoroge A, Venort T, Baributsa D. Postharvest Management of Grains in Haiti and Gender Roles. Sustainability 2020; 12:4608.

16 Arends-Kuenning M, Garcias M, Kamei A, Shikida PFA, Romani GE. Factors associated with the harvest and postharvest loss among soybean farmers in Western Paraná State, Brazil. Food Policy 2022; 112:102363.^-1717 Conte O, Possamai EJ, Filho Cecere P. Resultados do monitoramento integrado da colheita da solja na safra 2019/2020 no Paraná [Internet]. 2020 [acessado 2023 mar 15]. Disponível em: https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicacoes/-/publicacao/1130138/resultados-do-monitoramento-integrado-da-colheita-da-soja-na-safra-20192020-no-parana.
https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicac... or only traders (n=3)¹⁸18 Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). 2013 Project on Master Plan Study for Integrated Solid Waste Management in Bogota, D.C. Final Report [Internet]. [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12126835.pdf.
https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12...

19 Santos SF, Cardoso RCV, Borges ÍMP, Almeida AC, Andrade ES, Ferreira IO, Ramos LC. Post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables in supply centers in Salvador, Brazil: Analysis of determinants, volumes and reduction strategies. Waste Management 2020; 101:161-170.^-2020 Silva DEW, César AS, Conejero MA. Prevention of food waste and alternative destinations for unused food in Brazil. J Cleaner Production 2021; 318:128545. were respondents in the selected articles. Most studies have evaluated the entire food supply chain (n=9)¹1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf.
https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... ^,2121 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. The Reality of Food Losses a New Measurement Methodology [Internet]. IFPRI; 2017 [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/default/files/the_reality_of_food_losses_a_new_measurement_methodology.pdf.
https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/d...

22 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. Quantity and quality food losses across the value Chain: A Comparative analysis. Food Policy 2021; 98:101958.

23 Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC). Characterization and Management of Food Loss and Waste in North America. Montreal: CEC; 2017.

24 Chaboud G. Assessing food losses and waste with a methodological framework: Insights from a case study. Resources Conservation Recycling 2017; 125:188-197.

25 Chaboud G, Moustier P. The role of diverse distribution channels in reducing food loss and waste: The case of the Cali tomate supply chain in Colombia. Food Policy 2021; 98:101881.

26 Dal' Magro GP, Talamini E. Estimating the magnitude of the food loss and waste generated in Brazil. Waste Manag Res 2019; 37:706-716.

27 Velasco C, Ordinola M, Devaux A. Una aproximación a la medición de pérdidas de alimento en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador y Perú. Rev Latinoam Papa 2019; 23(2):46-65.^-2828 Bedoya-Perales NS, Dal'Magro GP. Quantification of food losses and waste in Peru: A Mass flow analysis along the Food Supply Chain. Sustainability 2021; 13:2807., three of them assessed the distribution¹⁸18 Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). 2013 Project on Master Plan Study for Integrated Solid Waste Management in Bogota, D.C. Final Report [Internet]. [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12126835.pdf.
https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12...

19 Santos SF, Cardoso RCV, Borges ÍMP, Almeida AC, Andrade ES, Ferreira IO, Ramos LC. Post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables in supply centers in Salvador, Brazil: Analysis of determinants, volumes and reduction strategies. Waste Management 2020; 101:161-170.^-2020 Silva DEW, César AS, Conejero MA. Prevention of food waste and alternative destinations for unused food in Brazil. J Cleaner Production 2021; 318:128545. and four studies focused on post-harvest handling and storage¹⁴14 Mendoza JR, Sabillón L, Martinez W, Campabadal C, Hallen-Adams HE, Bianchini A. Traditional maize post-harvest management practices amongst smallholder farmers in Guatemala. J Stored Products Res 2017; 71:14-21.

15 Quellhorst HE, Njoroge A, Venort T, Baributsa D. Postharvest Management of Grains in Haiti and Gender Roles. Sustainability 2020; 12:4608.

16 Arends-Kuenning M, Garcias M, Kamei A, Shikida PFA, Romani GE. Factors associated with the harvest and postharvest loss among soybean farmers in Western Paraná State, Brazil. Food Policy 2022; 112:102363.^-1717 Conte O, Possamai EJ, Filho Cecere P. Resultados do monitoramento integrado da colheita da solja na safra 2019/2020 no Paraná [Internet]. 2020 [acessado 2023 mar 15]. Disponível em: https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicacoes/-/publicacao/1130138/resultados-do-monitoramento-integrado-da-colheita-da-soja-na-safra-20192020-no-parana.
https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicac... . The individual quality of the assessed studies ranged from 1 to 3 (Chart 3). Only seven studies (43.7%) presented better methodological quality, demonstrating the need for more robust studies with reliable and rigorous methodology to produce scientific evidence on the topic.

Results recorded in the selected studies were organized based on food loss and food waste concepts due to deterioration and losses at production level and to deterioration at distribution/retail¹1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf.
https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... ^,66 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Food wastage footprint: impacts on natural resources: summary report [Internet]. Rome: FAO; 2013 [cited 2022 out 15]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i3347e/i3347e.pdf.. Chart 4 presents results in primary studies about food losses at initial FSC stages, Chart 5 shows results recorded for food waste at distribution and Chart 6 presents food loss and waste at all FSC stages.

Based on Charts 4 and 6, the total number of 13 selected studies reported food loss¹1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf.
https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... ^,1414 Mendoza JR, Sabillón L, Martinez W, Campabadal C, Hallen-Adams HE, Bianchini A. Traditional maize post-harvest management practices amongst smallholder farmers in Guatemala. J Stored Products Res 2017; 71:14-21.

15 Quellhorst HE, Njoroge A, Venort T, Baributsa D. Postharvest Management of Grains in Haiti and Gender Roles. Sustainability 2020; 12:4608.

16 Arends-Kuenning M, Garcias M, Kamei A, Shikida PFA, Romani GE. Factors associated with the harvest and postharvest loss among soybean farmers in Western Paraná State, Brazil. Food Policy 2022; 112:102363.^-1717 Conte O, Possamai EJ, Filho Cecere P. Resultados do monitoramento integrado da colheita da solja na safra 2019/2020 no Paraná [Internet]. 2020 [acessado 2023 mar 15]. Disponível em: https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicacoes/-/publicacao/1130138/resultados-do-monitoramento-integrado-da-colheita-da-soja-na-safra-20192020-no-parana.
https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicac... ^,2121 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. The Reality of Food Losses a New Measurement Methodology [Internet]. IFPRI; 2017 [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/default/files/the_reality_of_food_losses_a_new_measurement_methodology.pdf.
https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/d...

22 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. Quantity and quality food losses across the value Chain: A Comparative analysis. Food Policy 2021; 98:101958.

23 Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC). Characterization and Management of Food Loss and Waste in North America. Montreal: CEC; 2017.

24 Chaboud G. Assessing food losses and waste with a methodological framework: Insights from a case study. Resources Conservation Recycling 2017; 125:188-197.

25 Chaboud G, Moustier P. The role of diverse distribution channels in reducing food loss and waste: The case of the Cali tomate supply chain in Colombia. Food Policy 2021; 98:101881.

26 Dal' Magro GP, Talamini E. Estimating the magnitude of the food loss and waste generated in Brazil. Waste Manag Res 2019; 37:706-716.

27 Velasco C, Ordinola M, Devaux A. Una aproximación a la medición de pérdidas de alimento en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador y Perú. Rev Latinoam Papa 2019; 23(2):46-65.^-2828 Bedoya-Perales NS, Dal'Magro GP. Quantification of food losses and waste in Peru: A Mass flow analysis along the Food Supply Chain. Sustainability 2021; 13:2807.. One study evidenced 2,220 kg/year of food loss per capita in Latin America¹1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf.
https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... . Eleven studies mentioned food losses at food supply chain’s early and middle stages ¹1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf.
https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... ^,1414 Mendoza JR, Sabillón L, Martinez W, Campabadal C, Hallen-Adams HE, Bianchini A. Traditional maize post-harvest management practices amongst smallholder farmers in Guatemala. J Stored Products Res 2017; 71:14-21.

15 Quellhorst HE, Njoroge A, Venort T, Baributsa D. Postharvest Management of Grains in Haiti and Gender Roles. Sustainability 2020; 12:4608.

16 Arends-Kuenning M, Garcias M, Kamei A, Shikida PFA, Romani GE. Factors associated with the harvest and postharvest loss among soybean farmers in Western Paraná State, Brazil. Food Policy 2022; 112:102363.^-1717 Conte O, Possamai EJ, Filho Cecere P. Resultados do monitoramento integrado da colheita da solja na safra 2019/2020 no Paraná [Internet]. 2020 [acessado 2023 mar 15]. Disponível em: https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicacoes/-/publicacao/1130138/resultados-do-monitoramento-integrado-da-colheita-da-soja-na-safra-20192020-no-parana.
https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicac... ^,2121 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. The Reality of Food Losses a New Measurement Methodology [Internet]. IFPRI; 2017 [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/default/files/the_reality_of_food_losses_a_new_measurement_methodology.pdf.
https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/d... ^,2222 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. Quantity and quality food losses across the value Chain: A Comparative analysis. Food Policy 2021; 98:101958.^,2424 Chaboud G. Assessing food losses and waste with a methodological framework: Insights from a case study. Resources Conservation Recycling 2017; 125:188-197.

25 Chaboud G, Moustier P. The role of diverse distribution channels in reducing food loss and waste: The case of the Cali tomate supply chain in Colombia. Food Policy 2021; 98:101881.

26 Dal' Magro GP, Talamini E. Estimating the magnitude of the food loss and waste generated in Brazil. Waste Manag Res 2019; 37:706-716.

27 Velasco C, Ordinola M, Devaux A. Una aproximación a la medición de pérdidas de alimento en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador y Perú. Rev Latinoam Papa 2019; 23(2):46-65.^-2828 Bedoya-Perales NS, Dal'Magro GP. Quantification of food losses and waste in Peru: A Mass flow analysis along the Food Supply Chain. Sustainability 2021; 13:2807., mainly during storage¹⁴14 Mendoza JR, Sabillón L, Martinez W, Campabadal C, Hallen-Adams HE, Bianchini A. Traditional maize post-harvest management practices amongst smallholder farmers in Guatemala. J Stored Products Res 2017; 71:14-21.^,1515 Quellhorst HE, Njoroge A, Venort T, Baributsa D. Postharvest Management of Grains in Haiti and Gender Roles. Sustainability 2020; 12:4608.^,1717 Conte O, Possamai EJ, Filho Cecere P. Resultados do monitoramento integrado da colheita da solja na safra 2019/2020 no Paraná [Internet]. 2020 [acessado 2023 mar 15]. Disponível em: https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicacoes/-/publicacao/1130138/resultados-do-monitoramento-integrado-da-colheita-da-soja-na-safra-20192020-no-parana.
https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicac... ^,2626 Dal' Magro GP, Talamini E. Estimating the magnitude of the food loss and waste generated in Brazil. Waste Manag Res 2019; 37:706-716.

27 Velasco C, Ordinola M, Devaux A. Una aproximación a la medición de pérdidas de alimento en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador y Perú. Rev Latinoam Papa 2019; 23(2):46-65.^-2828 Bedoya-Perales NS, Dal'Magro GP. Quantification of food losses and waste in Peru: A Mass flow analysis along the Food Supply Chain. Sustainability 2021; 13:2807.. The study carried out in Peru and Ecuador showed major food loss frequency at food production, before harvest (>70%)²⁷27 Velasco C, Ordinola M, Devaux A. Una aproximación a la medición de pérdidas de alimento en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador y Perú. Rev Latinoam Papa 2019; 23(2):46-65.. The Colombian studies showed FLW higher in farms (58%) than in trade (22%) and retail establishments (25%), but FLW rates tended to be concentrated in few cultures - tomatoes’ FLW reached 11.2%, on average)²⁴24 Chaboud G. Assessing food losses and waste with a methodological framework: Insights from a case study. Resources Conservation Recycling 2017; 125:188-197.^,2525 Chaboud G, Moustier P. The role of diverse distribution channels in reducing food loss and waste: The case of the Cali tomate supply chain in Colombia. Food Policy 2021; 98:101881.. The largest FLW rates in Peru were related to farm size; smaller farms accounted for higher food loss rates²⁷27 Velasco C, Ordinola M, Devaux A. Una aproximación a la medición de pérdidas de alimento en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador y Perú. Rev Latinoam Papa 2019; 23(2):46-65..

Food commodities with the highest loss rates encompass fruits and vegetables, roots and tubers, and cereals¹1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf.
https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... ^,2626 Dal' Magro GP, Talamini E. Estimating the magnitude of the food loss and waste generated in Brazil. Waste Manag Res 2019; 37:706-716.^,2828 Bedoya-Perales NS, Dal'Magro GP. Quantification of food losses and waste in Peru: A Mass flow analysis along the Food Supply Chain. Sustainability 2021; 13:2807..

The main food loss cause reports concerned financial, managerial and harvesting technique limitations; storage and difficult climatic conditions; as well as poor infrastructure, and packaging and marketing systems ¹1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf.
https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... ^,1515 Quellhorst HE, Njoroge A, Venort T, Baributsa D. Postharvest Management of Grains in Haiti and Gender Roles. Sustainability 2020; 12:4608.^,1616 Arends-Kuenning M, Garcias M, Kamei A, Shikida PFA, Romani GE. Factors associated with the harvest and postharvest loss among soybean farmers in Western Paraná State, Brazil. Food Policy 2022; 112:102363.^,2020 Silva DEW, César AS, Conejero MA. Prevention of food waste and alternative destinations for unused food in Brazil. J Cleaner Production 2021; 318:128545.^,2121 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. The Reality of Food Losses a New Measurement Methodology [Internet]. IFPRI; 2017 [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/default/files/the_reality_of_food_losses_a_new_measurement_methodology.pdf.
https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/d... ^,2222 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. Quantity and quality food losses across the value Chain: A Comparative analysis. Food Policy 2021; 98:101958.^,2626 Dal' Magro GP, Talamini E. Estimating the magnitude of the food loss and waste generated in Brazil. Waste Manag Res 2019; 37:706-716.^,2727 Velasco C, Ordinola M, Devaux A. Una aproximación a la medición de pérdidas de alimento en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador y Perú. Rev Latinoam Papa 2019; 23(2):46-65.. The main factors influencing such losses in the selected studies were climatic factors, excessive humidity; as well as the presence of rodents, fungi, birds and insects; and low seed quality¹⁴14 Mendoza JR, Sabillón L, Martinez W, Campabadal C, Hallen-Adams HE, Bianchini A. Traditional maize post-harvest management practices amongst smallholder farmers in Guatemala. J Stored Products Res 2017; 71:14-21.^,1515 Quellhorst HE, Njoroge A, Venort T, Baributsa D. Postharvest Management of Grains in Haiti and Gender Roles. Sustainability 2020; 12:4608.^,1717 Conte O, Possamai EJ, Filho Cecere P. Resultados do monitoramento integrado da colheita da solja na safra 2019/2020 no Paraná [Internet]. 2020 [acessado 2023 mar 15]. Disponível em: https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicacoes/-/publicacao/1130138/resultados-do-monitoramento-integrado-da-colheita-da-soja-na-safra-20192020-no-parana.
https://www.embrapa.br/busca-de-publicac... ^,2121 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. The Reality of Food Losses a New Measurement Methodology [Internet]. IFPRI; 2017 [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/default/files/the_reality_of_food_losses_a_new_measurement_methodology.pdf.
https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/d... ^,2222 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. Quantity and quality food losses across the value Chain: A Comparative analysis. Food Policy 2021; 98:101958.^,2424 Chaboud G. Assessing food losses and waste with a methodological framework: Insights from a case study. Resources Conservation Recycling 2017; 125:188-197.

25 Chaboud G, Moustier P. The role of diverse distribution channels in reducing food loss and waste: The case of the Cali tomate supply chain in Colombia. Food Policy 2021; 98:101881.

26 Dal' Magro GP, Talamini E. Estimating the magnitude of the food loss and waste generated in Brazil. Waste Manag Res 2019; 37:706-716.

27 Velasco C, Ordinola M, Devaux A. Una aproximación a la medición de pérdidas de alimento en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador y Perú. Rev Latinoam Papa 2019; 23(2):46-65.^-2828 Bedoya-Perales NS, Dal'Magro GP. Quantification of food losses and waste in Peru: A Mass flow analysis along the Food Supply Chain. Sustainability 2021; 13:2807.. One of the selected studies mentioned theft as one of the causes of food loss¹⁵15 Quellhorst HE, Njoroge A, Venort T, Baributsa D. Postharvest Management of Grains in Haiti and Gender Roles. Sustainability 2020; 12:4608..

According to farmers, losses are caused in small food (potatoes, for example) during harvest, mechanical damage due to mistaken hoe using, low market price, lack of manpower, and inexperienced employees. Losses during harvest are caused by poor quality of food (potatoes, for example) inserted into the bags, hit during transportation or food that is accidentally smashed during separation. Losses at the storage stage often happen due to the presence of moth and insects in the storage area. Retailers and wholesalers state that food losses are caused by mechanical damage to the product²⁷27 Velasco C, Ordinola M, Devaux A. Una aproximación a la medición de pérdidas de alimento en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador y Perú. Rev Latinoam Papa 2019; 23(2):46-65..

One of the selected studies showed that donation was practiced by 72% of farmers, 69% of traders and 44% of retailers. Home-consumption is retailers’ second favorite option to avoid the disposal of unmarketable food. Farmers and traders never use food waste for home-consumption²⁴24 Chaboud G. Assessing food losses and waste with a methodological framework: Insights from a case study. Resources Conservation Recycling 2017; 125:188-197..

One study suggested 1) food waste donations to food banks; 2) modernizing supply centers to mitigate food losses due to infrastructure constraints; 3) developing research related to pest management, agro-industrialization and food processing, post-harvest practices, packaging, logistics and waste disposal; 4) carrying out public food purchases from family farms, such as the Food Acquisition Program and the National School Feeding Program, as strategies to reduce FL²⁶26 Dal' Magro GP, Talamini E. Estimating the magnitude of the food loss and waste generated in Brazil. Waste Manag Res 2019; 37:706-716..

None of the selected studies presented results about the FL impact on Latin American countries.

Based on Charts 5 and 6, food waste was reported in 12 studies¹1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf.
https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... ^,1818 Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). 2013 Project on Master Plan Study for Integrated Solid Waste Management in Bogota, D.C. Final Report [Internet]. [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12126835.pdf.
https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12...

19 Santos SF, Cardoso RCV, Borges ÍMP, Almeida AC, Andrade ES, Ferreira IO, Ramos LC. Post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables in supply centers in Salvador, Brazil: Analysis of determinants, volumes and reduction strategies. Waste Management 2020; 101:161-170.

20 Silva DEW, César AS, Conejero MA. Prevention of food waste and alternative destinations for unused food in Brazil. J Cleaner Production 2021; 318:128545.

21 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. The Reality of Food Losses a New Measurement Methodology [Internet]. IFPRI; 2017 [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/default/files/the_reality_of_food_losses_a_new_measurement_methodology.pdf.
https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/d...

22 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. Quantity and quality food losses across the value Chain: A Comparative analysis. Food Policy 2021; 98:101958.

23 Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC). Characterization and Management of Food Loss and Waste in North America. Montreal: CEC; 2017.

24 Chaboud G. Assessing food losses and waste with a methodological framework: Insights from a case study. Resources Conservation Recycling 2017; 125:188-197.

25 Chaboud G, Moustier P. The role of diverse distribution channels in reducing food loss and waste: The case of the Cali tomate supply chain in Colombia. Food Policy 2021; 98:101881.

26 Dal' Magro GP, Talamini E. Estimating the magnitude of the food loss and waste generated in Brazil. Waste Manag Res 2019; 37:706-716.

27 Velasco C, Ordinola M, Devaux A. Una aproximación a la medición de pérdidas de alimento en la cadena de la papa en Ecuador y Perú. Rev Latinoam Papa 2019; 23(2):46-65.^-2828 Bedoya-Perales NS, Dal'Magro GP. Quantification of food losses and waste in Peru: A Mass flow analysis along the Food Supply Chain. Sustainability 2021; 13:2807.. Three studies assessed the only distribution stage¹⁸18 Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). 2013 Project on Master Plan Study for Integrated Solid Waste Management in Bogota, D.C. Final Report [Internet]. [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12126835.pdf.
https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12...

19 Santos SF, Cardoso RCV, Borges ÍMP, Almeida AC, Andrade ES, Ferreira IO, Ramos LC. Post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables in supply centers in Salvador, Brazil: Analysis of determinants, volumes and reduction strategies. Waste Management 2020; 101:161-170.^-2020 Silva DEW, César AS, Conejero MA. Prevention of food waste and alternative destinations for unused food in Brazil. J Cleaner Production 2021; 318:128545.. The rate of purchased food discarded on a weekly basis reached 14.24%, it was mainly observed for banana, papaya, tomato and pepper¹⁹19 Santos SF, Cardoso RCV, Borges ÍMP, Almeida AC, Andrade ES, Ferreira IO, Ramos LC. Post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables in supply centers in Salvador, Brazil: Analysis of determinants, volumes and reduction strategies. Waste Management 2020; 101:161-170.^,2020 Silva DEW, César AS, Conejero MA. Prevention of food waste and alternative destinations for unused food in Brazil. J Cleaner Production 2021; 318:128545.^,2626 Dal' Magro GP, Talamini E. Estimating the magnitude of the food loss and waste generated in Brazil. Waste Manag Res 2019; 37:706-716..

Fruits and vegetables are lost due to natural food deterioration, since it is accelerated by lack of specific conservation procedures, poor storage facilities, excessive customers’ food handling and by inadequate material management (inappropriate replacement and vehicles’ poor transport conditions)¹⁹19 Santos SF, Cardoso RCV, Borges ÍMP, Almeida AC, Andrade ES, Ferreira IO, Ramos LC. Post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables in supply centers in Salvador, Brazil: Analysis of determinants, volumes and reduction strategies. Waste Management 2020; 101:161-170.^,2020 Silva DEW, César AS, Conejero MA. Prevention of food waste and alternative destinations for unused food in Brazil. J Cleaner Production 2021; 318:128545.. This authors also pointed out that food waste is also related to purchased food volume and farm income; higher income results in buying higher volumes of food and, consequently, in greater losses¹⁹19 Santos SF, Cardoso RCV, Borges ÍMP, Almeida AC, Andrade ES, Ferreira IO, Ramos LC. Post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables in supply centers in Salvador, Brazil: Analysis of determinants, volumes and reduction strategies. Waste Management 2020; 101:161-170..

The other factors influence the FW was lack of appropriate storage facilities and efficient transport systems, varying customer demand, market fluctuations, market systems (diversity of supply channels in formal and informal food chains)²¹21 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. The Reality of Food Losses a New Measurement Methodology [Internet]. IFPRI; 2017 [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/default/files/the_reality_of_food_losses_a_new_measurement_methodology.pdf.
https://www.oneplanetnetwork.org/sites/d...

22 Delgado L, Schuster M, Torero M. Quantity and quality food losses across the value Chain: A Comparative analysis. Food Policy 2021; 98:101958.^-2323 Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC). Characterization and Management of Food Loss and Waste in North America. Montreal: CEC; 2017.^,2828 Bedoya-Perales NS, Dal'Magro GP. Quantification of food losses and waste in Peru: A Mass flow analysis along the Food Supply Chain. Sustainability 2021; 13:2807..

The studies showed to initiatives to reduce FW such as separating recyclable waste, donating recyclable resources, carefully packaging products, ordering only what is necessary, keeping the workplace clean, strict quality control when receiving products, team training, preference by local suppliers and the use of processing and packaging technologies¹⁸18 Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). 2013 Project on Master Plan Study for Integrated Solid Waste Management in Bogota, D.C. Final Report [Internet]. [cited 2023 mar 15]. Available from: https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12126835.pdf.
https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12...

19 Santos SF, Cardoso RCV, Borges ÍMP, Almeida AC, Andrade ES, Ferreira IO, Ramos LC. Post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables in supply centers in Salvador, Brazil: Analysis of determinants, volumes and reduction strategies. Waste Management 2020; 101:161-170.^-2020 Silva DEW, César AS, Conejero MA. Prevention of food waste and alternative destinations for unused food in Brazil. J Cleaner Production 2021; 318:128545.. One study cited biogas production through anaerobic digestion, incineration with energy recovery, generation of new products (conversion of organic waste into fertilizer)²⁰20 Silva DEW, César AS, Conejero MA. Prevention of food waste and alternative destinations for unused food in Brazil. J Cleaner Production 2021; 318:128545..

Only one study cited the impact of FLW in greenhouse gas emissions for landfilled, fertilizer use, biodiversity loss, water and energy use²³23 Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC). Characterization and Management of Food Loss and Waste in North America. Montreal: CEC; 2017..

Similar in Latin America countries, the largest amount of FLW in Turkey is generated in the initial steps of the FSC. But in Turkey the mostly FLW concentrated in the agricultural production step. This process generates loss of approximately 13.7 million tons, and it corresponds to 11.9% of the total food produced in Turkey²⁹29 Tatlidil PFF, Dellal I, Bayramoglu Z. Food Losses and Waste in Turkey [Internet]. 2013 [cited 2021 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/publications/card/en/c/274dfc13-7c02-428c-9ae7-e81724dfbfcc/.
https://www.fao.org/publications/card/en... ^,3030 Salihoglu G, Salihoglu NK, Ucaroglu S, Banar M. Food loss and waste management in Turkey. Bioresour Technol 2018; 248(Pt A):88-99.. The main reasons reported for FLW were lack of cooperation, using traditional methods, rejection to new agricultural knowledge and technologies, using fertilizers and pesticides, damage to crops (tuber cutting, early uprooting, among others) and poor storage conditions²⁹29 Tatlidil PFF, Dellal I, Bayramoglu Z. Food Losses and Waste in Turkey [Internet]. 2013 [cited 2021 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/publications/card/en/c/274dfc13-7c02-428c-9ae7-e81724dfbfcc/.
https://www.fao.org/publications/card/en... .

In the Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) the estimates for all food lost is roughly 37% the total of produced food, or 120-170 kg/year per capita³¹31 Sheahan M, Barrett CB. Review: Food loss and waste in Sub-Saharan Africa. Food Policy 2017; 70:1-12.. There is consensus that it mostly happens in SSA at the middle FSC stages. Grains and cereals are lost during post-harvest handling and storage in farm, whereas fresh products, meat and seafood losses mainly happen at the processing, packaging and distribution stages in SSA¹1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf.
https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... ^,3232 Hodges RJ, Buzby JC, Bennett B. Postharvest losses and waste in developed and less developed countries: opportunities to improve resource use. J Agricult Sci 2011; 149:37-45.^,3333 World Bank. Missing Food: The Case of Postharvest Grain Losses in Sub-Saharan Africa [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2021 nov 4]. Available from: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/2824.
https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/hand... .

In the United States (USA), the biggest FSC losses happen at the middle FSC stages, mainly at the food handling and processing stages (15%). However, higher FW values were observed at consumer level - it reached 21%. Based on these results, food is lost at early FSC stages or wasted at the final consumer stage, in the USA³⁴34 Dou Z, Ferguson JD, Galligan DT, Kelly AM, Finn SM, Giegengack R. Assessing U.S. food wastage and opportunities for reduction. Global Food Security 2016; 8:19-26..

It is important to highlighting the impossibility of comparing findings in the selected studies, because there was no data standardization. It was not only difficult comparing values due to included crop differences, value chain levels, scales, agroecologies, seasonality and geography, but also because of the often unsatisfactory adopted methodologies³¹31 Sheahan M, Barrett CB. Review: Food loss and waste in Sub-Saharan Africa. Food Policy 2017; 70:1-12.^,3535 Affognon H, Mutungi C, Sanginga P, Borgemeister C. Unpacking postharvest losses in Sub-Saharan Africa: a meta-analysis. World Development 2015; 66:49-68..

Furthermore, FLW data were relatively underexplored and recorded, mainly in Latin American studies¹⁰10 Kitinoja L, Kader AA. Measuring postharvest losses of fresh fruits and vegetables in developing countries. PEF White Pap 2015; 15:26.. In total, 11 of the 20 Latin American countries did not have a single research on FLW. Brazil stood out for being the most productive country in terms of scientific research on this topic among the nine countries with publications in this field.

Such a shortage in research development on FLW in Latina American countries is similar to that observed for the Arabian world³⁶36 Abiad MG, Meho LI. Food loss and food waste research in the Arab world: a systematic review. Food Sec 2018; 10:311-322.. The main factors justifying this scarcity of articles lies on lack of interest by local scientists in the subject; on the small number of local scientists in the FLW field, and on lack of governmental funding and support³⁶36 Abiad MG, Meho LI. Food loss and food waste research in the Arab world: a systematic review. Food Sec 2018; 10:311-322.. It is noteworthy that no attention was paid to other FSC stages, such as production before harvest, processing and packaging.

Assumingly, there is no consensus on the golden methodology to evaluate FLW³⁷37 Lipinski B, Hanson C, Lomax J, Kitinoja L, Waite R, Searchinger T. Reducing Food Loss and Waste. Working Paper, Installment 2 of Creating a Sustainable Food Future [Internet]. Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute; 2013 [cited 2021 nov 4]. Available from: http://www.worldresourcesreport.org.
http://www.worldresourcesreport.org... , since all methodologies available present some limitations⁴4 Ishangulyyev R, Kim S, Lee SH. Understanding Food Loss and Waste-Why Are We Losing and Wasting Food? Foods 2019; 8:297.. Methodologies range from modeling/simulation to direct observation, to residual methods. All these methodologies are suitable when they are appropriately used, but they can be easily misused and misinterpreted³¹31 Sheahan M, Barrett CB. Review: Food loss and waste in Sub-Saharan Africa. Food Policy 2017; 70:1-12..

Lack of standardized measurement protocols associated with data scarcity leads to widely varying FLW estimates in the international literature, as well as to uncertainties about the estimated volumes²2 United Nations Environment Programme. Food Waste Index Report 2021. Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme; 2021.^,3838 Parfitt J, Barthel M, Macnaughton S. Food waste within food supply chains: quantification and potential for change to 2050. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2010; 365(1554):3065-3081.. However, FLW quantification is only the first step allowing the best understanding about how much, why and where FLW happens⁸8 Xue L, Liu G, Parfitt J, Liu X, Van Herpen E, Stenmarck Å, O'Connor C, Östergren K, Cheng S. Missing Food, Missing Data? A Critical Review of Global Food Losses and Food Waste Data. Environ Sci Technol 2017; 51:6618-6633.^,2424 Chaboud G. Assessing food losses and waste with a methodological framework: Insights from a case study. Resources Conservation Recycling 2017; 125:188-197.. And the report by the United Nations Environment Programme (PNUA) published in 2021 presents a methodology for countries to quantify food waste at the level of households, food services and food trade²2 United Nations Environment Programme. Food Waste Index Report 2021. Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme; 2021..

It is important measuring food losses or waste generation, at each FSC stage, for managerial purposes¹1 Gustavsson J, Cederberg C, Sonesson U. Global food losses and food waste [Internet]. 2011 [cited 2022 nov 4]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf.
https://www.fao.org/3/i2697e/i2697e.pdf... . Better data measuring and monitoring aim at helping to better understand the social, economic and environmental impacts of FLW, at identifying the hotspots where actions should be prioritized, at developing long-term scenarios to inform relevant policy-making, at understanding what policies and strategies have been most-effective at achieving FLW reduction and at, overall, contributing to FLW reduction and to food system sustainability⁸8 Xue L, Liu G, Parfitt J, Liu X, Van Herpen E, Stenmarck Å, O'Connor C, Östergren K, Cheng S. Missing Food, Missing Data? A Critical Review of Global Food Losses and Food Waste Data. Environ Sci Technol 2017; 51:6618-6633..

One of the main results of this literature review lies on the low expressiveness, or lack, of studies introducing and discussing the economic, environmental and social impacts of food loss and waste. Food losses represent the waste of production resources such as land, water, energy and inputs³⁹39 National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Reducing Impacts of Food Loss and Waste: Proceedings of a Workshop [Internet]. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press; 2019. Available from: https://doi.org/10.17226/25396.
https://doi.org/10.17226/25396... .

FAO quantified the food wastage footprint on natural resources and showed that total carbon footprint of food wastage, including land use change, is around 4.4 GtCO₂ eq per year. The carbon footprint of a food product is the total amount of GHG emitted throughout its lifecycle, expressed in kilograms of CO₂-equivalents⁴⁰40 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Food wastage footprint-Impacts on natural resources. Rome: FAO; 2013.. It should be noted that producing food that will not be consumed leads to unnecessary CO₂ emissions, in addition to food economic value loss. In addition, economically avoidable food losses have direct, and negative impact, on both farmers and consumers’ income; these people can live on the margins of food insecurity. Moreover, food loss reduction could have immediate and significant impact on the livelihood of these populations³⁹39 National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Reducing Impacts of Food Loss and Waste: Proceedings of a Workshop [Internet]. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press; 2019. Available from: https://doi.org/10.17226/25396.
https://doi.org/10.17226/25396... .

Reducing FLW is crucial and it can contribute to higher efficiency and yield of water, land and nutrient resources, as well as lead to a more environmentally sustainable agricultural production and consumption system⁷7 Shafiee-Jood M, Cai X. Reducing Food Loss and Waste to Enhance Food Security and Environmental Sustainability. Environ Sci Technol 2016; 50:8432-8443.. Source reduction and prevention strategies are the favorite methods to achieve FLW reduction.

Other potential solutions include feeding people in food banks and other donation programs, using animal feed, industrial use of food waste such as fuel rendering and conversion, using it for composting, and finally (as last resort) discharging it in landfills or using it in incinerators³⁹39 National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Reducing Impacts of Food Loss and Waste: Proceedings of a Workshop [Internet]. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press; 2019. Available from: https://doi.org/10.17226/25396.
https://doi.org/10.17226/25396... .

Other preventive actions need to be considered, namely: avoiding food overproduction or surplus at production and consumption stages; preventing avoidable waste generation by means of the food value chain; providing knowledge and information to consumers and educating them about the monetary value of environmental food-waste externalities; educating individuals and do community interventions to ensure “cascade training”; and allocating production surpluses through redistribution networks, institutions and food banks to people who are facing food insecurity⁷7 Shafiee-Jood M, Cai X. Reducing Food Loss and Waste to Enhance Food Security and Environmental Sustainability. Environ Sci Technol 2016; 50:8432-8443.. Education is related to prevention methods that act directly to change the behaviors, mindsets, and awareness of all involved in the food chain⁴¹41 Moraes NV, Lermen FH, Echeveste MES. A systematic literature review on food waste/loss prevention and minimization methods. J Environ Manage 2021; 286:112268..

However, there must also be governmental actions for the implementation of programs and public policies aimed at reducing the FWL through the establishment of goals and mitigation of factors that cause waste. The implementation of policies is an efficient way to involve the different actors in the FSC because it forces them to prioritize the prevention and minimization of FWL in their business. These policies need to be inspected and supervised to ensure compliance with the guidelines⁴¹41 Moraes NV, Lermen FH, Echeveste MES. A systematic literature review on food waste/loss prevention and minimization methods. J Environ Manage 2021; 286:112268..

Potential limitations of this review should be taken into consideration. The main expressive terms of the theme were not indexed. Although a wide search was performed, with no language or time-related limits, a small number of articles about FLW was found. The shortage of articles may reveal that the subject has not yet been the subject of studies, involving the adoption of different designs and strategies. Most studies were carried out in Brazil; therefore, most results only represent the Brazilian FLW. The scarcity of studies on FLW available in scientific databases²⁴24 Chaboud G. Assessing food losses and waste with a methodological framework: Insights from a case study. Resources Conservation Recycling 2017; 125:188-197. points towards low investment in research focused on this topic, mainly in Latin American countries¹⁰10 Kitinoja L, Kader AA. Measuring postharvest losses of fresh fruits and vegetables in developing countries. PEF White Pap 2015; 15:26.. Thus, understanding how much, why and where FLW takes place may be greater than the one found in this study.

Despite of mentioned limitations, the current study has several strengths, such as using a rigorous methodology based on PRISMA-ScR (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews) guidelines; providing a comprehensive literature search that encompassed seven electronic databases (PubMed, EMBASE, SCOPUS, Web of Science, Agricola, EBSCO’S Academic Search Ultimate, Cab Direct); search, selection and data extraction in separate, and in duplicate, by two researchers, based on third-party disagreement solution; and presenting well-defined inclusion criteria that have prioritized studies focused on FLW in Latin American countries.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Latin American countries account for high rates of food loss, which is featured by decreased amount and quality of food in the first three FSC stages, mainly during storage. The main causes of FSC in these countries are related to financial, managerial and operational limitations during food collection, storage and refrigeration.

Acknowledgments

This study was financed in part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - Brasil (CAPES) - Finance Code 001.

References

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