In August 2019, the Brazilian Northeast coast was hit by the largest environmental disaster caused by oil spill (petroleum) in its history, with the first record (30th) in Paraíba ¹1. Dantas C, Oliveira E, Manzano F, Figueiredo P. Óleo no Nordeste: veja a evolução das manchas e quando ocorreu o pico do desastre que completa 2 meses. G1 2019; 30 oct. https://g1.globo.com/natureza/desastre-ambiental-petroleo-praias/noticia/2019/10/30/oleo-no-nordeste-veja-a-evolucao-das-manchas-e-quando-ocorreu-o-pico-do-desastre-que-completa-2-meses.ghtml.
https://g1.globo.com/natureza/desastre-a... . Since then, the leak has spread to over 70% of the 3,300 kilometers of other northeastern states, reaching almost 500 locations in early November ²2. Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renováveis. Áreas com localidades oleadas no Nordeste brasileiro. Brasília: Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renováveis; 2019..

Until late November, assumptions regarding the source of the leak have not yet been confirmed by the government. According to Santos et al. ³3. Santos HF, Carmo FL, Rosado AS, Peixoto RS. Contaminação de recifes de coral por petróleo e seus derivados. In: Zilberberg C, Abrantes DP, Marques JA, Machado LF, Marangoni LFB, editores. Conhecendo os recifes brasileiros: rede de pesquisas Coral Vivo. Rio de Janeiro: Museu Nacional/Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro; 2016. p. 183-94., major offshore hydrocarbon oil transportation routes pass by reef environments. Large freighters carry more than 2x10⁶ tons across the world, representing a high risk of oil leakage in and around this particular ecosystem. Crude oil is a mixture of thousands of molecules and several concurrent processes occur when it comes into contact with seawater. Smaller molecules (higher volatility such as benzene, toluene and xylene) tend to evaporate rapidly into the atmosphere within the first week. Simultaneously, solubilization, dispersion in the water column and spreading by currents and tides are initiated. Moreover, the processes of emulsification (“water in oil” type mousse), biodegradation, photochemical oxidation and sedimentation also occur ⁴4. International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation. TIP 02: fate of marine oil spills. https://www.itopf.org/knowledge-resources/documents-guides/document/tip-02-fate-of-marine-oil-spills/ (accessed on 13/Nov/2019).
https://www.itopf.org/knowledge-resource... . These pollutants include aromatic and aliphatic compounds and may contain heavy metals among other substances extremely harmful to human health ⁵5. Laboratório de Saúde, Ambiente e Trabalho, Departamento de Saúde Coletiva, Instituto Aggeu Magalhães, Fiocruz Pernambuco. Carta aberta pela declaração de estado de emergência em Saúde Pública diante os perigos da exposição ao óleo de Petróleo nas praias nordestinas e para o desenvolvimento de ações de vigilância popular e cuidado em Saúde. Combate Racismo Ambiental 2019; 27 oct. https://racismoambiental.net.br/2019/10/29/carta-aberta-pela-declaracao-de-estado-de-emergencia-em-saude-publica/.
https://racismoambiental.net.br/2019/10/... .

Volunteers and contamination of fishing resources

As the terrifying and unexpected stains and waves of crude oil hit the beaches, several Northeastern volunteers acted spontaneously, individually and collectively, and were driven by humanitarian and environmental forces to clean the beaches (Figure 1). They were fishers, residents, students, businessmen, tourists, surfers; all exposed to these products and risking their health. In the early days, when these pollutants first arrived on the coast, most of these people had no knowledge of how to deal with such disaster, there was no guidance from brigade members, nor they had access to Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). To assist the volunteers, several centers donating PPE equipment, water and food were set up in universities and in the affected locations. Professional oil cleaning methods applied on the Spanish Galician coast ⁶6. Whitfield J. Oil spills: how to clean a beach. Nature 2003; 422:464-6., are radically opposed to the amateurism found here.

This catastrophe is extremely serious and an emergency to public health and to the environment, and anyone who has had contact with these chemicals should be monitored as indicated by the Health, Environment and Work Laboratory, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Lasat-Fiocruz) ⁵5. Laboratório de Saúde, Ambiente e Trabalho, Departamento de Saúde Coletiva, Instituto Aggeu Magalhães, Fiocruz Pernambuco. Carta aberta pela declaração de estado de emergência em Saúde Pública diante os perigos da exposição ao óleo de Petróleo nas praias nordestinas e para o desenvolvimento de ações de vigilância popular e cuidado em Saúde. Combate Racismo Ambiental 2019; 27 oct. https://racismoambiental.net.br/2019/10/29/carta-aberta-pela-declaracao-de-estado-de-emergencia-em-saude-publica/.
https://racismoambiental.net.br/2019/10/... . The Letter stated that most of these products are carcinogenic and may cause miscarriages, neurological, hepatic, renal, dermatological, pulmonary, blood (e.g., leukemia) complications, or even death; when inhaled, ingested via water, or by direct contact. According to the report of the Executive Secretariat for Health Surveillance of the state of Pernambuco ⁷7. Secretaria Executiva de Vigilância em Saúde. Intoxicações exógenas relacionadas à exposição ao petróleo no litoral de Pernambuco. Informe nº 06/2019. https://12ad4c92-89c7-4218-9e11-0ee136fa4b92.filesusr.com/ugd/3293a8_c5ecdbfcb41a4a0fb92ac3fa780e718d.pdf.
https://12ad4c92-89c7-4218-9e11-0ee136fa... , there are 149 suspected cases of oil poisoning. Symptom cases were mainly neurological (e.g., headache, nausea, dizziness), cutaneous (e.g., skin irritation and blemishes), respiratory (e.g., breathlessness, sore throat) and digestive (e.g., vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain). The situation is urgent and it is strongly recommended not to use the beaches affected by oil residues or to consume fish from these regions, the report argues that “it is very important that the Unified Health System guarantees the right to comprehensive health care and information to protect” these people ⁵5. Laboratório de Saúde, Ambiente e Trabalho, Departamento de Saúde Coletiva, Instituto Aggeu Magalhães, Fiocruz Pernambuco. Carta aberta pela declaração de estado de emergência em Saúde Pública diante os perigos da exposição ao óleo de Petróleo nas praias nordestinas e para o desenvolvimento de ações de vigilância popular e cuidado em Saúde. Combate Racismo Ambiental 2019; 27 oct. https://racismoambiental.net.br/2019/10/29/carta-aberta-pela-declaracao-de-estado-de-emergencia-em-saude-publica/.
https://racismoambiental.net.br/2019/10/... .

Even though it is a constitutional right, transparency and broader government actions to contain the oil spilled on the coast are lacking, as stated by scientists of the University of São Paulo (USP) in an open letter ⁸8. Souza M. Faltam transparência e ações mais amplas do governo para conter óleo na costa, cobram cientistas. Jornal da USP 2019; 23 oct. https://jornal.usp.br/ciencias/faltam-transparencia-e-acoes-mais-amplas-do-governo-para-conter-oleo-na-costa-cobram-cientistas/.
https://jornal.usp.br/ciencias/faltam-tr... . The National Contingency Plan for Oil and Water Pollution Incidents under National Jurisdiction was only formalized by the Minister of Environment 41 days after the disaster ⁹9. Borges A. Salles só formalizou plano 41 dias após manchas aparecerem no Nordeste. O Estado de S. Paulo 2019; 22 oct. https://sustentabilidade.estadao.com.br/noticias/geral,salles-so-formalizou-plano-41-dias-apos-manchas-aparecerem-no-nordeste,70003059406.
https://sustentabilidade.estadao.com.br/... , and several of its resolutions are insufficient. Official information, especially from the federal government, is superficial and practically disregards the guidelines issued by the researchers.

There is an interflow between coastal ecosystems that links nutrients, sediments, pollutants, and organisms ¹⁰10. Cowen RK, Lwiza KMM, Sponaugle S, Paris CB, Olson DB. Connectivity of marine populations: open or closed? Science 2000; 287:857-9.. This connectivity regulates the daily or seasonal activities of these individuals and ensures that species complete their life cycles. Several species of fish breed in the sea, their larvae occupy the mangroves, while the young ones grow on the reefs and return to the sea as adults ¹¹11. Silva-Falcão EC, Severi W, Araújo ME. Spatial-temporal variation of Achirus larvae (Actinopterygii: Achiridae) in mangrove, beach and reef habitats in north-eastern Brazil. J Mar Biol Assoc U K 2012; 93:381-8.. Thus, when one of these ecosystems is impacted (for example, by oil pollutants), the connectivity is disrupted, populations are isolated and hardly survive the extreme conditions, disappearing in the medium and long term. Almost all marine life depends on this mosaic, and the chemical poisoning of the air, water, and substrate of an ecosystem can lead to the accumulation of toxic compounds, disease, or death of all living things, including humans. Turtles, birds and fish were found covered in oil, some of them dead ¹1. Dantas C, Oliveira E, Manzano F, Figueiredo P. Óleo no Nordeste: veja a evolução das manchas e quando ocorreu o pico do desastre que completa 2 meses. G1 2019; 30 oct. https://g1.globo.com/natureza/desastre-ambiental-petroleo-praias/noticia/2019/10/30/oleo-no-nordeste-veja-a-evolucao-das-manchas-e-quando-ocorreu-o-pico-do-desastre-que-completa-2-meses.ghtml.
https://g1.globo.com/natureza/desastre-a... .

In late October, Federal University of Bahia (UFBA) researchers found the presence of oil in the digestive and respiratory tract of fish, mollusks and crustaceans ¹²12. Pesquisadores da Ufba encontram óleo em aparelhos digestivos e respiratórios de peixes e mariscos. G1 2019; 24 oct. https://g1.globo.com/ba/bahia/noticia/2019/10/24/pesquisadores-da-ufba-encontram-oleo-nos-aparelhos-digestivos-e-respiratorios-de-peixes-e-mariscos.ghtml.
https://g1.globo.com/ba/bahia/noticia/20... . Since this environmental crime is still very recent, studies related to the negative impacts of oil on marine life are still insufficient. Research in other countries indicates that the oil causes nervous disorders in young fish, altering their perception and making them more susceptible to predation ¹³13. Johansen JL, Allan BJM, Rummer JL, Esbauch AJ. Oil exposure disrupts early life-history stages of coral reef fishes via behavioural impairments. Nat Ecol Evol 2017; 1:1146-52.. Crabs also accumulate toxins from petroleum hydrocarbons and dispersant products which, in theory, solve the oil spill problem - like in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010 ¹⁴14. Chase DA, Edwards DS, Qin G, Wages MR, Willming MM, Anderson TA, et al. Bioaccumulation of petroleum hydrocarbons in fiddler crabs (Uca minax) exposed to weathered MC-252 crude oil alone and in mixture with an oil dispersant. Sci Total Environ 2013; 444:121-7..

Shellfish, one of the largest protein sources for human consumption and heavily fished on the northeastern coast, are rapidly being impacted in areas hit by oil spills, with high mortality rate in the Northeast coast ¹²12. Pesquisadores da Ufba encontram óleo em aparelhos digestivos e respiratórios de peixes e mariscos. G1 2019; 24 oct. https://g1.globo.com/ba/bahia/noticia/2019/10/24/pesquisadores-da-ufba-encontram-oleo-nos-aparelhos-digestivos-e-respiratorios-de-peixes-e-mariscos.ghtml.
https://g1.globo.com/ba/bahia/noticia/20... . Mollusks and other benthic animals, such as corals, have rapid bioaccumulation of pollutants. Their direct contact with the oil causes asphyxiation, leading to death and the decimation of their populations for decades, as well as of organisms that depend on them ³3. Santos HF, Carmo FL, Rosado AS, Peixoto RS. Contaminação de recifes de coral por petróleo e seus derivados. In: Zilberberg C, Abrantes DP, Marques JA, Machado LF, Marangoni LFB, editores. Conhecendo os recifes brasileiros: rede de pesquisas Coral Vivo. Rio de Janeiro: Museu Nacional/Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro; 2016. p. 183-94.. Bivalve mollusks are excellent filtering agents and considered very good bioindicators for coastal marine pollutants ¹⁵15. Yusof AM, Yanta NF, Wood AKH. The use of bivalves as bio-indicators in the assessment of marine pollution along a coastal area. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 2004; 259:119-27.. Toxins accumulate in the tissues of these mollusks ¹⁶16. Primost MA, Commendatore M, Torres PJ, Bigatti G. PAHs contamination in edible gastropods from north Patagonian harbor areas. Mar Pollut Bull 2018; 135:828-31., causing diseases that inhibit their locomotion and cause the onset of necrosis and neoplasms ¹⁷17. Neff JM, Hillman RE, Carr RS, Buhl RL, Lahey JI. Histopathologic and biochemical responses in arctic marine bivalve molluscs exposed to experimentally spilled oil. Arctic 1986; 40:220-9.. In oysters, the presence of oil stuck in the sediment can seriously impact the fertilization process of the gametes and the larvae in the initial stages ¹⁸18. Boulais M, Vignier J, Loh AN, Chu FLE, Lay CR, Morris JM, et al. Sublethal effects of oil-contaminated sediment to early life stages of the Eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica. Environ Pollut 2018; 243(Pt A):743-51..

Socioeconomic impacts

Bibliographic survey, on-site observations and interviews with fishers and traders were conducted (from October, 24 to November, 16, 2019) by the present authors, researchers from the Federal University of Pernambuco (UFPE), in several municipalities of the state. The social and environmental results provided subsidies for the following discussion.

Fishing communities can no longer market their shellfish, oysters, charru mussel and crabs. Through interviews and informal conversations, 51 people were heard, fishers (17 women and 18 men), 6 middlemen and 10 fish markets, in the affected municipalities (São José da Coroa Grande, Tamandaré, Rio Formoso and Cabo de Santo Agostinho) and unaffected municipalities (Goiana, Itapissuma, Olinda and Recife), noting that the latter also felt the negative repercussions of the oil spill. Between the second half of October and the first week of November, sales drops of these products ranged from 80% to 100% in Pernambuco. The trade-in deep-sea fish (mackerel, red snapper, goldfish) was also affected as it declined by at least 60%, and cultivated species (salmon, shrimp) by about 50% of the previous market price. Although the entire fishing community is affected, fisherwomen were hit the hardest, as they catch shellfish, oysters and charru mussel ¹⁹19. Ramalho CWN. Os possíveis impactos dos vazamentos de óleo nas comunidades pesqueiras artesanais em Pernambuco: um breve e provisório balanço. Recife: Núcleo de Estudos Humanidades, Mares e Rios, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco; 2019..

The great decrease in fish sales has led to three immediate effects on communities due to the lack of monetary resources: (1) fishery products are restricted to feeding native families (2) making it impossible to buy basic items such as beans, rice, noodles, coffee and (3) leading to delays and defaults on payments (energy, clothes, appliances).

When asked if they would stop consuming fish if it were decreed to stop fishing across the coast, the response was unanimous: “No. We will keep eating”. One statement provides a justifiable explanation: “What will we eat?! Beef, chicken, salad?! Salmon!? These are rich people things, for people with money. We always ate what comes from our waters, and it’s free, the fruits of our labor, it’s a gift from God to be a fisher. I love being a fisherman, and we suffer as the fish also suffer from all of this [the oil leak]” (Crab fisherman from Carne de Vaca beach, Goiana).

This phrase reveals the complex connections that involve the condition of being fishers. Fishing is more than just a job that generates income and food; it is an existential mark, a life project and a desire for the world, mainly because it is composed of affection and pride, representing a unique type of work and way of life. Nature is a companion and a sister for fishers, and when nature is injured it also injures the artisanal fishing communities. A fisherman from Suape (Santo Agostinho Cape) argued that “we all were jeopardized here; those who fish on open sea or fish here in the beaches and rivers”. A fisherwoman of Rio Formoso said that “if it is bad for men, for us women it is much worse here in Pernambuco, because we catch shellfish, oysters, charru mussel; and the consumers are even more afraid of eating it”.

The environmental and socioeconomic damages caused by the oil contamination in the Northeast are incalculable. The fish trade and tourism sectors are paralyzed, leading to an increase in unemployment of professionals in these industries. However, it was the artisanal fishers and the traditional communities that were hit the hardest by an environmental crime that they did not commit but that prevents them from working and surviving ²⁰20. Ramalho CWN. A situação do comércio de pescados em algumas localidades pernambucanas: reflexões preliminares após os vazamentos do petróleo. Recife: Núcleo de Estudos Humanidades, Mares e Rios, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco; 2019.. The freezers are crammed because the markets, bars and restaurants are no longer consuming. There are no customers even in traditional gastronomic centers such as the Itapissuma stew (northern coast). The problem is compounded further by the approach of summer, since the income of fishers and tourism professionals tend to increase ²¹21. Pinto MF. Pesca artesanal no litoral pernambucano e cearense: implicações conservacionistas. Recife: Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco; 2016..

In 2010, the Oceanarium Institute (Federal Rural University of Pernambuco - UFRPE) estimated that 30,000 people were living from artisanal fishing in Pernambuco, which means that at least the same number of people is directly and indirectly affected by the scenario caused by the largest socioenvironmental tragedy in Brazil. Such workers were responsible for approximately 97% of the fish caught in the state during 1990s and 2000s ²²22. Ramalho CWN. Ah, esse povo do mar! Um estudo sobre trabalho e pertencimento na pesca artesanal pernambucana. São Paulo: Editora Polis/Campinas: Centro de Estudos Rurais, Universidade Estadual de Campinas; 2006.^,2323. Ramalho CWN. Embarcadiços do encantamento: trabalho sinônimo de arte, estética e liberdade na pesca marítima. Campinas: Centro de Estudos Rurais, Universidade Estadual de Campinas; São Cristóvão: Editora UFS; 2017.^,2424. Ramalho CWN. Pescados, pescarias e pescadores: notas etnográficas sobre processos ecossociais. Boletim do Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi - Ciências Humanas 2016; 11:391-414.. These form the basis of a complex production chain: boat and net manufacturers and repairers, fish processors, sale of nylon nets, lines, fuel, sail and ranch; small, medium and large traders of fish, tourism, bars, restaurants, inns and hotels in the Northeast region.

Sea workers call for efficient and urgent government action to diagnose the health of the estuary and, consequently, of fish.

“We have no money and we will not stop feeding our children. What do we have to offer them?! Our fish. They may be contaminated but what can we do? My God!... The government gives us no other way” (fisherwoman from Sirinhaém).

Of the 35 respondents, 73% came into direct contact with oil and this figure rises to 95% when it involves a family member or friend. They all complained that they are not being followed-up by public health. Fishers are undoubtedly the social group most exposed to the negative impacts caused by the spills since their workplaces and addresses were hit the hardest and this situation will probably remain for an undefined timeframe.

Final considerations

Representatives of the social movements of artisanal fishing stated at a meeting at UFPE last November 4th (organized by the UFPE SOS Mar Committee): “We are not beggars, we are not begging, we are sea workers and we want the government to pay the salary of all fishers until we can fish again so we don’t starve”.

At this same meeting, the Pastoral Council of Fishers argued that “a healthy nature also means healthy seafood and fishers”. Therefore, there is no way to disconnect the harmful impacts on the environment without disregarding its direct implications in the living of the fishing communities. This line of work has been clearly affected by the oil spill and the lack of policy-making by the State that can, at least in a compensatory manner, minimize the major damages caused to the fishing economy and also possible damages to fishers’ health.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the researcher Constança Simões Barbosa for the critical review of the manuscript, Clara de Holanda Araújo for the translation of the manuscript, Brazilian National Research Council (CNPq) for the researchers’ scholarships for the authors (M. E. Araújo and C. W. N. Ramalho) and Pernambuco State Research Foundation (FACEPE) for the Master’s scholarships (P. W. Melo), and INCT-Amb Tropical (CNPq) for their support.

References

Publication Dates

History