ABSTRACT

Objective:

To describe the situation of food insecurity of families according to the socioeconomic characteristics and dimensions of the food system in Brumadinho, state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, after the dam rupture in Córrego do Feijão mine.

Methods:

This is a descriptive study focused on households carried out from the baseline of the Brumadinho Health Project. Food insecurity, the main outcome, was assessed by the short version of the Brazilian Food Insecurity Scale. Other investigated variables were: socioeconomic data; geographic stratum of the households; family's assets; income; expenses; cultivation of food and animal husbandry for consumption. Descriptive analyses were performed comparing the food insecurity of the household according to the other variables by the χ² test to compare the proportions.

Results:

Of the investigated households (n=1,441), 35.1% were facing food insecurity. facing food insecurity had: lower prevalence of masonry households with coating (91.4%; 95%CI 87.7%−94.1% vs. 96.7%; 95%CI 94.9%−97.8%); highest proportion of rudimentary cesspit (16.9%; 95%CI 13.3%−21.2% vs. 9.4%; 95%CI 7.4−11.9); lower prevalence of own and paid-off homes (63.9%; 95%CI 56.8−70.5 vs. 77.3%; 95%CI 72.3−81.7); and income reduction after the dam rupture (33.0%; 95%CI 27.1−39.6 vs. 14.1%; 95%CI 11.2−17.6), when compared with those in a food security situation.

Conclusion:

The prevalence of food insecurity was high, with report of a reduction in household income after the dam rupture. Moreover, most of the households had worse structural quality and sewage outfall. These results evidence the vulnerability of families and possible violation of the human right to adequate food, denoting the urgency of continuous reparative actions.

Keywords:
Structure collapse; Man-made disasters; Socioeconomic factors; Health; Food security

INTRODUCTION

Disasters are events that result in the interruption of the normal functioning of a community, affecting its daily life and resulting in material, economic, environmental, and health losses¹1 Organização Pan-Americana da Saúde. Ministério da Saúde. Desastres naturais e saúde no Brasil. Brasília: Organização Pan-Americana da Saúde/Ministério da Saúde; 2014.. These events mobilize the entire health structure and can distance the population from healthy and sustainable food systems and, therefore, expose them to food and nutrition insecurity (FNI). FNI occurs when the right of regular and permanent access to quality food in sufficient quantity is not guaranteed²2 Brasil. Presidência da República. Casa Civil. Subchefia para Assuntos Jurídicos. Lei n° 11.346, de 15 de setembro de 2006. Cria o Sistema Nacional de Segurança Alimentar e Nutricional – SISAN com vistas em assegurar o direito humano à alimentação adequada e dá outras providências [Internet]. 2006 [cited on Sept. 2, 2022]. Available at: http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2004-2006/2006/lei/l11346.htm
http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_at... .

In Brazil, in 2019, the disaster caused by the rupture of the tailings dam at the Córrego do Feijão mine, in Brumadinho, state of Minas Gerais³3 Romão A, Froes C, Barcellos CC, Silva DX, Saldanha R, Carrijo RSGG, et al. Avaliação preliminar dos impactos sobre a saúde do desastre da mineração da Vale (Brumadinho, MG). [cited on Aug. 16, 2022]. Available at: https://www.arca.fiocruz.br/bitstream/icict/32268/3/Nota_Tecnica_Brumadinho_impacto_Saude_01022019.pdf
https://www.arca.fiocruz.br/bitstream/ic... , stood out.

Industrial production systems, such as mining, are constantly denounced for their unsustainability and damage to the environment and health. In Brumadinho, mining is a historic activity, and its production system, as well as that of other mining companies, degrades natural resources and produces tons of tailings³3 Romão A, Froes C, Barcellos CC, Silva DX, Saldanha R, Carrijo RSGG, et al. Avaliação preliminar dos impactos sobre a saúde do desastre da mineração da Vale (Brumadinho, MG). [cited on Aug. 16, 2022]. Available at: https://www.arca.fiocruz.br/bitstream/icict/32268/3/Nota_Tecnica_Brumadinho_impacto_Saude_01022019.pdf
https://www.arca.fiocruz.br/bitstream/ic... ,⁴4 Laschefski KA. Rompimento de barragens em Mariana e Brumadinho (MG): desastres como meio de acumulação por despossessão. Ambientes Rev Geog Ecol Pol 2020; 2(1): 98. https://doi.org/10.48075/amb.v2i1.23299
https://doi.org/10.48075/amb.v2i1.23299... , which, in Brumadinho, were stored in dams, using a method not entirely safe yet⁵5 Centro Internacional de Métodos Numéricos en Ingeniería. Relatório Final. Análise computacional da ruptura da Barragem I na Mina do Córrego do Feijão, em Brumadinho [Internet] 2021. [cited on Aug. 16, 2022]. Available at: http://www.mpf.mp.br/mg/sala-de-imprensa/docs/2021/relatorio-final-cinme-upc-traducao-do-sumario-executivo-final.pdf
http://www.mpf.mp.br/mg/sala-de-imprensa... .

This disaster involved, among other aspects, the loss of land, soil and water contamination, configuring an obstacle to food and nutrition security (FNS)⁶6 Lourdes EB, Santana HC, Macedo LR, Correira FS, Cordeiro Pacheco T, Nascimento DP, et al. Changes in dietary and water use habits after the Doce River contamination with mining tailings. Food Sci Technol 2022; 42: e11021. https://doi.org/10.1590/fst.11021
https://doi.org/10.1590/fst.11021... –⁹9 Romão A, Froes C, Barcellos C, Silva DX, Saldanha R, Gracie R, et al. Avaliação dos impactos sobre a saúde do desastre da mineração da Vale (Brumadinho, MG). Nota Técnica (15 fev 2019). Rio de Janeiro: Fiocruz; 2019. [acessado em 18 jul. 2022]. Disponível em: https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwiD5-nFpvb5AhWDqZUCHSz8DlgQFnoECAoQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.epsjv.fiocruz.br%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Ffiles%2Frelat%25C3%25B3rio_Brumadinho_impacto_sa%25C3%25BAde_01_fev_b.pdf&usg=AOvVaw0HhoaIPE_8ZtfA5b71GeAA
https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=... . However, Brumadinho had probably already been experiencing a scenario of violations of the Human Right to Adequate Food, considering the return of Brazil to the map of hunger and recession in the country. In this sense, the dam rupture demonstrated a devastating panorama, denoting the urgency of this investigation.

Furthermore, little is known about the impacts of this disaster on the productive capacity of small producers. Taking this into consideration, this article aimed to describe the food insecurity (FI) of families according to socioeconomic characteristics and dimensions of food systems after the disaster.

METHODS

Study design and location

This is a descriptive study developed based on household data from the baseline of the Brumadinho Health Project (Projeto Saúde Brumadinho)¹⁰10 Peixoto SV, Firmo JOA, Fróes-Asmus CIR, Mambrini JVM, Freitas CM, Lima-Costa MF, et al. Projeto Saúde Brumadinho: aspectos metodológicos e perfil epidemiológico dos participantes da linha de base da coorte. Rev Bras Epidemiol 2022; (supl 2): E220002. https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-549720220002.supl.2.1
https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-54972022000... .

Brumadinho is a Brazilian municipality in the southeast macro-region of the country with 643.52 km², located in the metropolitan region of Belo Horizonte. In 2018, its estimated population was 39,520 inhabitants, composed of 52.1% people who self-reported to be black and mixed-race. The municipal human development index of the municipality is 0.747 (2010), and its main economic activities are mining and agriculture and livestock farming¹¹11 Libânio CA, Trigger A, Zanandreis C, Santos DA, Aquino J, Soares MCR, et al. Guia da cidadania e identidade metropolitana na RMBH. Belo Horizonte: Favela é Isso Aí; 2018..

In January 2019, the municipality experienced a disaster that released about 11.7 million cubic meters of mud and resulted in hundreds of fatalities⁷7 Polignano MV, Lemos RS. Rompimento da barragem da Vale em Brumadinho: impactos socioambientais na Bacia do Rio Paraopeba. Cienc Cult 2020; 72(2): 37-43. http://dx.doi.org/10.21800/2317-66602020000200011
http://dx.doi.org/10.21800/2317-66602020... –¹⁰10 Peixoto SV, Firmo JOA, Fróes-Asmus CIR, Mambrini JVM, Freitas CM, Lima-Costa MF, et al. Projeto Saúde Brumadinho: aspectos metodológicos e perfil epidemiológico dos participantes da linha de base da coorte. Rev Bras Epidemiol 2022; (supl 2): E220002. https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-549720220002.supl.2.1
https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-54972022000... .

Study population and sample

For the sample design, three estimation domains were considered:

1. Households directly affected by the rupture of the tailings dam at the Córrego do Feijão mine;

2. Households located in areas with mining activity; and

3. Households located in areas not directly affected by the rupture of the dam or mining activity¹⁰10 Peixoto SV, Firmo JOA, Fróes-Asmus CIR, Mambrini JVM, Freitas CM, Lima-Costa MF, et al. Projeto Saúde Brumadinho: aspectos metodológicos e perfil epidemiológico dos participantes da linha de base da coorte. Rev Bras Epidemiol 2022; (supl 2): E220002. https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-549720220002.supl.2.1
   https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-54972022000... .

In domains 1 and 2, all households were eligible to participate in the study. In domain 1, residents of the Córrego do Feijão region at the time of the disaster were included, in addition to those who no longer lived there. Conversely, in domain 3, households from other regions of Brumadinho were included¹⁰10 Peixoto SV, Firmo JOA, Fróes-Asmus CIR, Mambrini JVM, Freitas CM, Lima-Costa MF, et al. Projeto Saúde Brumadinho: aspectos metodológicos e perfil epidemiológico dos participantes da linha de base da coorte. Rev Bras Epidemiol 2022; (supl 2): E220002. https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-549720220002.supl.2.1
https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-54972022000... .

The sample design also considered the stratification of the research population by census tract. In all the households visited, residents aged 18 years and over were invited to answer questions about the household¹⁰10 Peixoto SV, Firmo JOA, Fróes-Asmus CIR, Mambrini JVM, Freitas CM, Lima-Costa MF, et al. Projeto Saúde Brumadinho: aspectos metodológicos e perfil epidemiológico dos participantes da linha de base da coorte. Rev Bras Epidemiol 2022; (supl 2): E220002. https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-549720220002.supl.2.1
https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-54972022000... .

For the sizing of the sample, the balance between affected individuals (by mud or mining activity) and those not affected was considered. Thus, the sample size of the unaffected area was estimated specifying a minimum proportion equal to 3%, with a relative margin of error for the estimation of, at most, 45%, and a confidence coefficient equal to 95% (1-α). As the sample was stratified, an estimate of the sample design effect (SDE) of 1.1 was also considered. Sample weights were estimated for each of the interviewed households, so as to produce estimates with a lower margin of error¹⁰10 Peixoto SV, Firmo JOA, Fróes-Asmus CIR, Mambrini JVM, Freitas CM, Lima-Costa MF, et al. Projeto Saúde Brumadinho: aspectos metodológicos e perfil epidemiológico dos participantes da linha de base da coorte. Rev Bras Epidemiol 2022; (supl 2): E220002. https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-549720220002.supl.2.1
https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-54972022000... .

Study variables

Data were obtained by face-to-face interviews¹⁰10 Peixoto SV, Firmo JOA, Fróes-Asmus CIR, Mambrini JVM, Freitas CM, Lima-Costa MF, et al. Projeto Saúde Brumadinho: aspectos metodológicos e perfil epidemiológico dos participantes da linha de base da coorte. Rev Bras Epidemiol 2022; (supl 2): E220002. https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-549720220002.supl.2.1
https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-54972022000... . Household data were analyzed, including: FI; socioeconomic data; geographic stratum of the households; family's assets, income, and expenses; cultivation of food and animal husbandry for own consumption.

Food insecurity: outcome variable

The Brazilian Food Insecurity Scale (Escala Brasileira de Insegurança Alimentar – EBIA), short version, was used to assess FI of the families participating in the Brumadinho Health Project. This version of EBIA is composed of eight closed-ended questions (yes/no). For each positive question (yes), a point is assigned¹²12 Segall-Corrêa AM, Marin-León L, Melgar-Quiñorez H, Pérez-Escamilla R. Refinement of the Brazilian household food insecurity measurement scale: recommendation for a 14-item EBIA. Rev Nutr 2014; 27(2): 241-51. https://doi.org/10.1590/1415-52732014000200010
https://doi.org/10.1590/1415-52732014000... ,¹³13 Interlenghi GS, Reichenheim ME, Segall-Corrêa AM, Pérez-Escamilla R, Moraes C, Salles-Costa R. Suitability of the eight-item version of the Brazilian household food insecurity measurement scale to identify risk groups: evidence from a nationwide representative sample. Public Health Nutr 2019; 22(5): 776-84. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980018003592
https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898001800359... .

The EBIA analysis was based on the final score gradient resulting from the sum of affirmative answers to the questions. For analysis purposes, the final score was categorized into food security (FS) (0 point) or FI (>0 point)¹²12 Segall-Corrêa AM, Marin-León L, Melgar-Quiñorez H, Pérez-Escamilla R. Refinement of the Brazilian household food insecurity measurement scale: recommendation for a 14-item EBIA. Rev Nutr 2014; 27(2): 241-51. https://doi.org/10.1590/1415-52732014000200010
https://doi.org/10.1590/1415-52732014000... ,¹³13 Interlenghi GS, Reichenheim ME, Segall-Corrêa AM, Pérez-Escamilla R, Moraes C, Salles-Costa R. Suitability of the eight-item version of the Brazilian household food insecurity measurement scale to identify risk groups: evidence from a nationwide representative sample. Public Health Nutr 2019; 22(5): 776-84. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980018003592
https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898001800359... .

Other variables

The investigated socioeconomic variables referred to: characteristics of the households, assets, the household residents’ income, and the household expenses, including food. Furthermore, the geographic stratum in which the household was located (directly affected/mining region/other regions) was investigated.

As for the characteristics of the household, the following were investigated: number of residents; whether the house was the same as before the disaster (yes/no); type of materials of the external walls (masonry or other material); number of rooms and bathrooms; electricity (yes/no); sewage outfall (general sewage system; septic tank; rudimentary cesspit; others, such as ditch or land, direct to river, stream, or lake); and waste disposal.

As for the assets, the following were evaluated: ownership situation of the household currently and before the dam rupture (own and paid-off house; own house, but not paid off; rented; relative's or friend's house, loaned, or other condition) and if this situation changed after the dam ruptured (yes/no). Loaned property was considered when the participant reported that the house was granted by a relative, employer, or other.

Variables related to household income were investigated, such as: current total income (in the Brazilian currency reais [BRL]); whether the income changed after the dam rupture (yes/no); whether participants were beneficiaries of the Bolsa Família Program (Programa Bolsa Família – PBF)¹1Brazilian conditional direct cash transfer program aimed at households in extreme poverty or poverty situation. (yes/no); whether participants received the Continuous Welfare Benefit (Benefício Assistencial de Prestação Continuada – BPC)²2Social Assistance Benefit targeted at people aged 65 or over and persons of any age with disabilities who can prove that they have no means of supporting themselves or being supported by their families. (yes/no); and whether they received or receive a benefit due to the dam rupture (yes/no). Moreover, the authors investigated whether household expenses with food changed after the dam rupture (yes/no).

Additionally, current practices and those before the dam rupture for fruit and vegetable cultivation and animal husbandry were investigated. It is noteworthy that, in this study, food cultivation and animal husbandry were analyzed as one of the dimensions of food systems.

Statistical analysis

The descriptive analyses performed consisted of frequency distributions for categorical variables and measures of central tendency and dispersion for continuous variables. Data were presented as percentage or mean and respective 95% confidence intervals (95%CI).

Significant differences between the prevalence values were identified by Pearson's χ² statistical test with Rao-Scott correction. In cases in which there were significant differences, two-by-two comparisons were made with Bonferroni correction.

The analyses were performed in the STATA software using the svy command, which considers the calibrated weight of the household and correction for the design effect.

Ethical aspects

The study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee (process No.: 20814719.5.0000.5091), and all respondents agreed to and signed the Informed Consent Form.

RESULTS

Of the total number of families investigated (n=1,441), 35.1% were facing FI, with no significant differences according to geographic stratum of the household (p=0.078) (Table 1).

Approximately 80% of the investigated families remained in the same households after the dam rupture. The average number of residents per household was 2.7±2.3, being statistically higher among families facing FI when compared with those in FS (2.9±9.4 vs. 2.6±6.3, p=0.025) (Table 1).

As for the characteristics of the households, most of them had electricity (99.3%), and the waste was directly collected by the municipal cleaning service (95.9%). Nevertheless, families facing FI lived in households with fewer rooms and bathrooms when compared with the others (p<0.001).

Most households had masonry walls with coating (94.9%), and this prevalence was statistically lower among families facing FI (91.4% vs. 96.7%, p=0.004) (Table 1).

Half of the households had a general sewage system, with no differences concerning the FS situation of the families. However, when investigating other types of sanitation, we found that 36.5% of the households had a septic tank and 12.0% had a rudimentary cesspit, with the prevalence of rudimentary cesspit being higher when compared with those in FS (16.9 vs. 9.4%, p=0.001) (Table 1).

In Table 2 we present the housing situation currently and before the dam rupture as well as the assets, income, and expenses of families according to the FI situation. Over 70% of the investigated households were own and paid-off, with this prevalence being lower among families facing FI (63.9 vs.77.3%, p=0.005). A similar trend was observed when we investigated the situation before the dam rupture, with the prevalence of own and paid-off households also being lower among families facing FI (70.2 vs. 80.7%, p=0.024).

The average income of families was BRL 2,088.00±104.20, being lower among those facing FI when compared with the others (BRL 1,209.90±105.24 vs. 2,607.22±176.02, p<0.001). Families in FI reported even lower income maintenance (30.2 vs. 44.2%, p<0.001) and its greatest reduction after the dam rupture (33.0 vs. 14.1%, p<0.001) when compared with those in FS. When investigating the lack of change in household expenses after the dam rupture, we observed a lower prevalence of affirmative answers to this question among families facing FI compared with those in FS (16.1 vs. 32.5%, p<0.001). Furthermore, less than 2% of families received BPC, and approximately 7% were PBF beneficiaries, with this prevalence being higher among those facing FI (p=0.015) (Table 2).

The animal husbandry and the cultivation of fruits/vegetables for consumption currently and before the dam rupture were above 85%, with no statistical differences according to the FI situation of the families. We identified an exception for animal husbandry before the disaster. Families facing FI raised animals less frequently when compared with those in FS (88.5 vs. 95.5%, p=0.004) (Table 3).

DISCUSSION

We found a high prevalence of FI in Brumadinho. Families facing FI, when compared with those in FS, reported lower per capita income, with a reduction after the dam rupture, higher number of people in the household, and greater proportion of PBF beneficiaries. In addition, these families lived in households with poorer structural quality, fewer rooms and bathrooms, external walls without coating, and primary sanitation systems.

FNI is a critical global issue¹⁴14 Fagundes A, Ribeiro RCL, Brito ERB, Recine E, Rocha C. Public infrastructure for food and nutrition security in Brazil: fufilling the constitutional commitment to the human right to adequate food. Food Secur 2022; 14(4): 897-905. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-022-01272-1
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-022-01272... . It is estimated that, in 2020, 2.3 billion of the world's population did not have sufficient access to food¹⁵15 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP, WHO. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2021. Transforming food systems for food security, improved nutrition and affordable healthy diets for all. Rome: FAO; 2021. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb4474en
https://doi.org/10.4060/cb4474en... . In Brazil, the Consumer Expenditure Survey (Pesquisa de Orçamento Familiar – POF 2017-2018) showed that 36.7% of Brazilian families faced some level of FI¹⁶16 Brasil. Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística. Pesquisa de orçamentos familiares 2017–2018: primeiros resultados. Rio de Janeiro: IBGE; 2019.. In 2020, results from the National Survey on FI in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, conducted by the Brazilian Research Network on Food and Nutrition Sovereignty and Security (Rede Brasileira de Pesquisa em Soberania e Segurança Alimentar e Nutricional – PENSSAN Network), showed that 55.2% of families faced FI, an increase of 54% compared with 2018 (36.7%). The number of individuals in severe FI, that is, in situation of hunger, reached 19 million Brazilians¹⁷17 Rede PENSSAN. Inquérito nacional sobre insegurança alimentar no contexto da pandemia da COVID-19 no Brasil [Internet]. 2021 [cited on July 18, 2022]. Available at: https://pesquisassan.net.br/olheparaafome/
https://pesquisassan.net.br/olheparaafom... . In the second edition of the survey, carried out in 2022, it was found that 58.7% of the population faced some degree of FI and 33.1 million faced severe FI¹⁸18 Rede PENSSAN. 2° inquérito nacional sobre insegurança alimentar no contexto da pandemia da COVID-19 no Brasil [Internet]. 2022. [cited on July 18, 2022]. Available at: https://pesquisassan.net.br/2o-inquerito-nacional-sobre-inseguranca-alimentar-no-contexto-da-pandemia-da-covid-19-no-brasil/
https://pesquisassan.net.br/2o-inquerito... .

Access to food and FI has also been investigated at critical moments in the country, such as the 2014-2015 economic crisis¹⁹19 Costa NS, Santos MO, Carvalho CPO, Assunção ML, Ferreira HS. Prevalence and factors associated with food insecurity in the context of the economic crisis in Brazil. Current Developments in Nutrition 2017; 1(10): e000869. https://doi.org/10.3945/cdn.117.000869
https://doi.org/10.3945/cdn.117.000869... and, more recently, during the truck drivers’ strike²⁰20 Lopes MS, Araújo ML, Lopes ACS. National general truck drivers’ strike and food security in a Brazilian metropolis. Public Health Nutr 2019; 22(17): 3220-8. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980019001939
https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898001900193... and the COVID-19 pandemic with the closure of commercial establishments²¹21 Lopes MS, Freitas PP, Carvalho MCR, Silva UM, Lopes ACS. The COVID-19 pandemic in a Brazilian metropolis: repercussion on food prices. Cad Saúde Pública 2022; 38(4): e00166721. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311XEN166721
https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311XEN16672... . Researchers found that the Brazilian economic crisis of 2014-2015 was associated with a sharp increase in the prevalence of FI in the state of Alagoas¹⁹19 Costa NS, Santos MO, Carvalho CPO, Assunção ML, Ferreira HS. Prevalence and factors associated with food insecurity in the context of the economic crisis in Brazil. Current Developments in Nutrition 2017; 1(10): e000869. https://doi.org/10.3945/cdn.117.000869
https://doi.org/10.3945/cdn.117.000869... . Conversely, the truck drivers’ strike was associated with a reduction in the availability and variety of food and an increase in the prices of fruit and vegetables²⁰20 Lopes MS, Araújo ML, Lopes ACS. National general truck drivers’ strike and food security in a Brazilian metropolis. Public Health Nutr 2019; 22(17): 3220-8. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980019001939
https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898001900193... . Strategies to combat the COVID-19 pandemic related to the closing of commercial establishments, in turn, may have reduced the demand for fresh food²¹21 Lopes MS, Freitas PP, Carvalho MCR, Silva UM, Lopes ACS. The COVID-19 pandemic in a Brazilian metropolis: repercussion on food prices. Cad Saúde Pública 2022; 38(4): e00166721. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311XEN166721
https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311XEN16672... .

The prevalence of FI in Brumadinho, despite being similar to national data, promotes an additional reflection for resulting from a disaster. In Brumadinho, the disaster promoted a profound transformation in the natural, social, and built environment. For instance, a documentary analysis of the disaster similar to our study demonstrated that FI took place by the impossibility of fishing, the devastation of cultivation and pasture areas, and the uncertainty of food innocuousness²²22 Prata DA. Insegurança alimentar e comunidades tradicionais: desdobramentos no caso Samarco. In: Saad-Diniz E, Trentini F, Ribeiro IP, Bertan MPC, orgs. Anais de Congresso. Food law: um diálogo interdisciplinar; 2018. p. 120-31; Ribeirão Preto: Faculdade de Direito de Ribeirão Preto. [cited on July 18, 2022]. Available at: https://bit.ly/2QryiNr
https://bit.ly/2QryiNr... .

It is likely that the lower productivity of small farmers and fishermen due to the disaster may have had a negative impact on the availability of food, leading to an increase in prices in food stores. In the social environment, the loss of the local food culture was notorious. Brumadinho was prominent for its multiple festivals, such as the Jaboticaba, Tangerine, and Corn Festivals, which had to be suspended¹¹11 Libânio CA, Trigger A, Zanandreis C, Santos DA, Aquino J, Soares MCR, et al. Guia da cidadania e identidade metropolitana na RMBH. Belo Horizonte: Favela é Isso Aí; 2018.. The hiatus caused by this cultural damage associated with the loss of family members, photographs, books, and other personal belongings are also deemed as violations of the Human Right to Adequate Food.

We verified a lower per capita income among families facing FI, with a reduction after the dam rupture as well as a greater number of people receiving the PBF benefit. The reduction in income and the inefficiency in the management of damages and compensation for victims can make the FI condition even more complex⁴4 Laschefski KA. Rompimento de barragens em Mariana e Brumadinho (MG): desastres como meio de acumulação por despossessão. Ambientes Rev Geog Ecol Pol 2020; 2(1): 98. https://doi.org/10.48075/amb.v2i1.23299
https://doi.org/10.48075/amb.v2i1.23299... . Likewise, the extinction and restructuring of successful programs, such as the PBF, replaced by the Auxílio Brasil Program, with unclear rules and an undefined budget, can affect families.

The lower prevalence of own and paid-off households, associated with the higher proportion of uncoated masonry houses, may indicate the lower purchasing power of families facing FI. Similarly, according to the 2019 Continuous National Household Sample Survey (Continuous PNAD), the poorest regions of the country had the highest prevalence of loaned and uncoated houses²³23 Brasil. Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística. Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicílios Contínua. Características gerais dos domicílios e dos moradores: 2018. Rio de Janeiro: IBGE; 2019..

Regarding alternative forms of sanitation, families facing FI had a higher prevalence of rudimentary cesspits and a lower prevalence of septic tanks. Rudimentary cesspits are pits or holes dug in the ground, without waterproofing or with partial waterproofing. This route of sanitation, therefore, can affect the groundwater and cause the spread of diseases²⁴24 Fundação Nacional de Saúde. Manual de saneamento. Brasília: Funasa; 2015.. This suggests greater precariousness of families facing FI in the municipality.

Structural differences in the households of families in a situation of FI have also been identified in other studies. POF data analyses (2008–2009) indicated that the prevalence of FI was associated with poor housing conditions, worse lighting, worse waste collection and sanitation services²⁵25 Araújo ML, Nascimento DR, Lopes MS, Passos CM, Lopes ACS. Condições de vida de famílias brasileiras: estimativa da insegurança alimentar. Rev Bras Est Pop 2020; 37: e0110. https://doi.org/10.20947/S0102-3098a0110
https://doi.org/10.20947/S0102-3098a0110... .

These socioeconomic and structural inequalities of households, as well as the vulnerability of the population prior to the disaster, can potentiate FI and directly affect the impacts of the disaster. The lack or reduction of income, unemployment, housing deficiencies, insufficient access to education, and precarious health conditions are directly interrelated with the worsening of FI, as shown by the last survey of the PENSSAN Network¹⁸18 Rede PENSSAN. 2° inquérito nacional sobre insegurança alimentar no contexto da pandemia da COVID-19 no Brasil [Internet]. 2022. [cited on July 18, 2022]. Available at: https://pesquisassan.net.br/2o-inquerito-nacional-sobre-inseguranca-alimentar-no-contexto-da-pandemia-da-covid-19-no-brasil/
https://pesquisassan.net.br/2o-inquerito... .

This current FI scenario is triggered after a series of political and economic events in the country. The years from 2014 to 2016 were marked by a serious economic and political crisis. Subsequently, a new tax regime was approved by the Constitutional Amendment No. 95, which entailed the freeze of spending on health and education²⁶26 Paiva AB, Mesquita ACS, Jaccoud LB, Passos L. O novo regime fiscal e suas implicações para a política de assistência social no Brasil. Brasília: IPEA; 2016.–²⁸28 Vasconcelos FAG, Machado ML, Medeiros MAT, Neves JA, Recine E, Pasquim EM. Políticas públicas de alimentação e nutrição do Brasil: de Lula a Temer. Rev Nutr 2019; 32: e180161. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1678-9865201932e180161
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1678-986520193... . At the same time, labor and social security laws were revised, reducing workers’ social security²⁶26 Paiva AB, Mesquita ACS, Jaccoud LB, Passos L. O novo regime fiscal e suas implicações para a política de assistência social no Brasil. Brasília: IPEA; 2016.–²⁸28 Vasconcelos FAG, Machado ML, Medeiros MAT, Neves JA, Recine E, Pasquim EM. Políticas públicas de alimentação e nutrição do Brasil: de Lula a Temer. Rev Nutr 2019; 32: e180161. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1678-9865201932e180161
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1678-986520193... . In 2019, the National Council for Food Security and Nutrition (Conselho Nacional de Segurança Alimentar e Nutricional – CONSEA) was extinguished, compromising the functioning of the National Food and Nutrition Security System (Sistema de Segurança Alimentar e Nutricional – SISAN)²⁹29 Castro IRR. A extinção do Conselho Nacional de Segurança Alimentar e Nutricional e a agenda de alimentação e nutrição. Cad Saúde Pública 2019; 35(2): e00009919. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X00009919
https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X0000991... . All these issues weakened social policies and FS in Brazil and probably in Brumadinho as well.

One aspect that can contribute to the FS of families is the cultivation of food and the animal husbandry for domestic consumption, especially regarding the most vulnerable population. The production of food is less expensive than the purchase in commercial establishments. Moreover, animal husbandry can produce, in addition to meat, products such as eggs and milk, complementing food. Domestic food production is associated with FS for both economic and nutritional aspects, in addition to promoting appreciation of local production, self-sufficiency, and sustainability. In addition, families that produce their own food know its origin and value assured quality³⁰30 Grigol NS, Molina SMG, Sant’Ana GC, Garavello MEPE. Produção para autoconsumo e segurança alimentar entre assentados rurais do Alto Xingu, Mato Grosso, Brasil. Rev Econ Sociol Rural 2022; 60(2): e233195. https://doi.org/10.1590/1806-9479.2021.233195
https://doi.org/10.1590/1806-9479.2021.2... . This result shows the need for remedial actions that focus on FS to address issues related to domestic food production.

Food production and animal husbandry can also contribute to increasing household income. However, in recent years, there has been a significant reduction in the financing of programs to encourage family farming. Likewise, we can mention the reduction of public inventory of the National Supply Company (Companhia Nacional de Abastecimento – CONAB), which could guarantee the price and income of the producer and mitigate fluctuations in food prices.

In parallel to austerity policies and Brazil's return to the hunger map, the flexibilization of environmental legislation is accelerating. This legislative framework may have directly affected the municipality of Brumadinho⁴4 Laschefski KA. Rompimento de barragens em Mariana e Brumadinho (MG): desastres como meio de acumulação por despossessão. Ambientes Rev Geog Ecol Pol 2020; 2(1): 98. https://doi.org/10.48075/amb.v2i1.23299
https://doi.org/10.48075/amb.v2i1.23299... .

In Brazil and in the world, mining companies have the strength to influence power relations so that they benefit from them. In this sense, the environmental system seems to adjust to the economic interests of large corporations⁴4 Laschefski KA. Rompimento de barragens em Mariana e Brumadinho (MG): desastres como meio de acumulação por despossessão. Ambientes Rev Geog Ecol Pol 2020; 2(1): 98. https://doi.org/10.48075/amb.v2i1.23299
https://doi.org/10.48075/amb.v2i1.23299... . Part of this discourse is justified by the economic development produced by mining in the municipalities. Nonetheless, it is known that mining is a short-term activity with little articulation with other sectors of the economy, in addition to harming the environment. In this sense, the economic advances achieved in the short- and medium-terms do not necessarily contribute to the reduction of social inequalities, the eradication of poverty, and sustainable development⁴4 Laschefski KA. Rompimento de barragens em Mariana e Brumadinho (MG): desastres como meio de acumulação por despossessão. Ambientes Rev Geog Ecol Pol 2020; 2(1): 98. https://doi.org/10.48075/amb.v2i1.23299
https://doi.org/10.48075/amb.v2i1.23299... , which are key aspects for guaranteeing the Human Right to Adequate Food.

Our results are unprecedented and relevant, but their interpretation requires caution. Using the short version of the EBIA limits the investigation of FI levels of families and does not allow the analysis of the nutritional dimension of the FNS concept. However, to date, there is no validated scale available in Brazil that encompasses such complexity. As for the fact that the short version of the EBIA was used, it is noteworthy that this scale was developed by the same authors as the original scale, with good results. Furthermore, its use is recommended in large epidemiological studies, which have limitations in terms of interview time and/or funding resources for data collection¹³13 Interlenghi GS, Reichenheim ME, Segall-Corrêa AM, Pérez-Escamilla R, Moraes C, Salles-Costa R. Suitability of the eight-item version of the Brazilian household food insecurity measurement scale to identify risk groups: evidence from a nationwide representative sample. Public Health Nutr 2019; 22(5): 776-84. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980018003592
https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898001800359... .

Another limitation of our study concerns the time difference between the time of the disaster (2019) and data collection (2021), which may have generated information bias, especially due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Nevertheless, it was not possible to control such effects.

Conversely, this is the first quantitative study to assess the FI situation of families after a disaster of these proportions, being a differential in the national and international literature. A subsequent step in understanding this phenomenon should involve performing multivariate and multilevel analyses. We should also mention the importance of carrying out longitudinal analyses of data on food cultivation and animal husbandry to better investigate food systems.

The prevalence of FI among families after the dam rupture denotes the urgency of implementing continuous actions aimed at guaranteeing this right. In addition, the worst socioeconomic and structural conditions of households can directly influence the impacts of the disaster on the population's diet, which could worsen in the coming decades due to the country's return to the hunger map.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS:

The authors would like to thank the project participants for their cooperation and participation.

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