ABSTRACT

Objective

To identify groups of transgender women and travestis (TGW) with specific patterns of gender-based discrimination (GBD) and analyze the factors associated with GBD.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted with TGW recruited through respondent-driven sampling in five Brazilian cities (2019-2021). Latent class analysis was used to characterize GBD (low, medium, and high) using 14 observable variables. Descriptive analysis was performed, and associations between predictor variables and GBD were estimated by adjusted odds ratios (aOR) using ordinal logistic regression.

Results

Out of a total of 1,317 TGW, 906 (68.8%) answered questions about GBD. Most were under 34 years old, single, and had a Brown race/skin color. GBD was classified as “low,” “medium,” and “high,” with estimates of 41.7, 44.5, and 13.8%, respectively. Variables positively associated with higher intensity of GBD included living in Manaus compared to São Paulo, being ≤34 years old compared to >34, being homeless compared to living in one’s own house or rented apartment, not having legally changed one’s name compared to those who had, and reporting physical or sexual violence compared to those who did not report. Variables negatively associated with higher intensity of GBD included having a Brown or Asian race/skin color compared to White and a monthly income ≥1 minimum wage compared to ³1.

Conclusion

A high proportion of GBD was observed in Brazilian TGW, with this outcome associated with more vulnerable sociodemographic characteristics and a history of violence.

Keywords:
Transgender persons; Transgender women; Discrimination; Gender identity; Latent class analysis; Brazil

INTRODUCTION

Transgender women and travestis (TGW) have been disproportionately affected by certain morbidities, notably HIV/AIDS and depression¹1. Leite BO, Magno L, Soares F, MacCarthy S, Brignol S, Bastos FI, et al. HIV prevalence among transgender women in Northeast Brazil – findings from two Respondent Driven Sampling studies. BMC Public Health 2022; 22(1): 2120. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-14589-5
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-14589...

2. Costa AB, Fontanari AMV, Jacinto MM, Silva DC, Lorencetti EK, Rosa Filho HT, et al. Population-based HIV prevalence and associated factors in male-to-female transsexuals from Southern Brazil. Arch Sex Behav 2015; 44(2): 521-4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0386-z
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0386-... -³3. Almeida MM, Silva LAV, Bastos FI, Guimarães MDC, Coutinho C, Brito AM, et al. Factors associated with symptoms of major depression disorder among transgender women in Northeast Brazil. PLoS One 2022; 17(9): e0267795. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0267795
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.026... . Specifically, when it comes to HIV/AIDS, a previous systematic review study revealed that discrimination is often associated with the three dimensions of vulnerability to HIV, i.e., individual (e.g., low condom use negotiation), social (e.g., obstacles to access schooling and formal employment), and programmatic (e.g., lack of access to information, prevention technologies, testing, and HIV counseling)⁴4. Magno L, Silva L, Veras MA, Pereira-Santos M, Dourado I. Stigma and discrimination related to gender identity and vulnerability to HIV/AIDS among transgender women: a systematic review. Cad Saude Publica 2019; 35(4): e00112718. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X00112718
https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X0011271... .

Several advancements have been made in recognizing the needs of TGW, such as the establishment of national LGBT health policies and the implementation of trans outpatient clinics and related services⁵5. Bezerra MVR, Magno L, Prado NMBL, Santos AM. Historical conditions for emergence of the National Policy for Comprehensive LGBT Health in the social space of health in the State of Bahia, Brazil. Cad Saude Publica 2021; 37(8): e00221420. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X00221420
https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X0022142... , as well as the Federal Supreme Court’s interpretation equating crimes of LGBTphobia with those of racism⁶6. Supremo Tribunal Federal. STF enquadra homofobia e transfobia como crimes de racismo ao reconhecer omissão legislativa [Internet]. 2019 [cited on Jan 20, 2024] Available at: https://portal.stf.jus.br/noticias/verNoticiaDetalhe.asp?idConteudo=414010
https://portal.stf.jus.br/noticias/verNo... . However, studies show that this population often encounters numerous barriers to accessing healthcare services and receives inadequate support for their specific needs, especially concerning access to cross-hormone therapy, gender-affirming surgeries, and resistance from healthcare professionals regarding the use of their social names in the Brazilian Unified Health System (Sistema Único de Saúde – SUS)⁷7. Rocon PC, Rodrigues A, Zamboni J, Pedrini MD. Difficulties experienced by trans people in accessing the Unified Health System. Cien Saude Colet 2016; 21(8): 2517-26. https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-81232015218.14362015
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From 2008 to 2021, Brazil was identified as the country with the highest number of recorded murders of transgender individuals worldwide⁹9. TGEU. Trans murder monitoring 2023 global update [Internet]. 2023 [cited on Jan 20, 2024]. Available at: https://tgeu.org/trans-murder-monitoring-2023/
https://tgeu.org/trans-murder-monitoring... . Throughout this period, the country documented an annual mean of 123.8 murders, with a significant majority of trans youth victims aged 18 to 29 between 2017 and 2021. Furthermore, statistics reveal that 96% of these murders targeted TGW, while in 2021, 78% of victims identified as sex workers, with 81% being black and brown¹⁰10. Benevides BG. Dossieê assassinatos e violeências contra travestis e transexuais brasileiras em 2022. Brasil: Associação Nacional de Travestis e Transexuais do Brasil; 2023..

Discrimination has been defined as a set of negative attitudes and behaviors against specific people or population groups, stemming from broader stigmatization processes¹¹11. Pescosolido BA, Martin JK. The stigma complex. Annu Rev Sociol 2015; 41: 87-116. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-071312-145702
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12. Maluwa M, Aggleton P, Parker R. HIV-and AIDS-related stigma, discrimination, and human rights: a critical overview. Health Hum Rights 2002; 6(1): 1-18. https://doi.org/10.2307/4065311
https://doi.org/10.2307/4065311... -¹³13. Parker R. Stigma, prejudice and discrimination in global public health. Cad Saude Publica 2012; 28(1): 164-9. https://doi.org/10.1590/s0102-311x2012000100017
https://doi.org/10.1590/s0102-311x201200... . It encompasses a set of institutionalized social expressions and relationships of domination and oppression whose intention is to maintain power and privileges within the system¹⁴14. Krieger N. Embodying inequality: a review of concepts, measures, and methods for studying health consequences of discrimination. Int J Health Serv 1999; 29(2): 295-352. https://doi.org/10.2190/M11W-VWXE-KQM9-G97Q
https://doi.org/10.2190/M11W-VWXE-KQM9-G... . Gender-based discrimination (GBD) against trans people is derived from the existence of a hegemonic cis-heteronormative system, which perceives transgenders and travestis as “abnormal” or “immoral”, thereby imposing a set of social and economic disadvantages upon this population, as well as epidemiological challenges⁴4. Magno L, Silva L, Veras MA, Pereira-Santos M, Dourado I. Stigma and discrimination related to gender identity and vulnerability to HIV/AIDS among transgender women: a systematic review. Cad Saude Publica 2019; 35(4): e00112718. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X00112718
https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X0011271... .

GBD has been identified by numerous epidemiological and socio-anthropological studies as one of the main predictors of adverse health outcomes and barriers to accessing healthcare services¹⁵15. Jesus JG, Belden CM, Huynh HV, Malta M, LeGrand S, Kaza VGK, et al. Mental health and challenges of transgender women: a qualitative study in Brazil and India. Int J Transgend Health 2020; 21(4): 418-30. https://doi.org/10.1080/26895269.2020.1761923
https://doi.org/10.1080/26895269.2020.17...

16. Luz PM, Jalil EM, Castilho J, Velasque L, Ramos M, Ferreira ACG, et al. Association of discrimination, violence, and resilience with depressive symptoms among transgender women in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: a cross-sectional analysis. Transgend Health 2022; 7(1): 101-6. https://doi.org/10.1089/trgh.2020.0171
https://doi.org/10.1089/trgh.2020.0171...

17. Pimenta MC, Bermúdez XP, Godoi AMM, Maksud I, Benedetti M, Kauss B, et al. Barriers and facilitators for access to PrEP by vulnerable populations in Brazil: the ImPrEP Stakeholders Study. Cad Saude Publica 2022; 38(1): e00290620. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X00290620
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18. Rossi TA, Brasil SA, Magno L, Veras MA, Pinheiro TF, Pereira M, et al. Conhecimentos, percepções e itinerários terapêuticos de travestis e mulheres trans no cuidado a infecções sexualmente transmissíveis em Salvador, Brasil. Sex Salud Soc (Rio J) 2022; 38: e22304. https://doi.org/10.1590/1984-6487.sess.2022.38.e22304.a
https://doi.org/10.1590/1984-6487.sess.2... -¹⁹19. Wilson EC, Jalil EM, Castro C, Fernandez NM, Kamel L, Grinsztejn B. Barriers and facilitators to PrEP for transwomen in Brazil. Glob Public Health 2019; 14(2): 300-8. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2018.1505933
https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2018.15... . Moreover, discrimination is documented even within the LGBT+ community itself²⁰20. Infante C, Sosa-Rubi SG, Cuadra SM. Sex work in Mexico: vulnerability of male, travesti, transgender and transsexual sex workers. Cult Health Sex 2009; 11(2): 125-37. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691050802431314
https://doi.org/10.1080/1369105080243131... .

The literature highlights various approaches to analyzing data on GBD. A systematic review study showed that the variables commonly employed to determine the theoretical construct of “discrimination” are structured based on scales that have not been validated for the specific population of trans women⁴4. Magno L, Silva L, Veras MA, Pereira-Santos M, Dourado I. Stigma and discrimination related to gender identity and vulnerability to HIV/AIDS among transgender women: a systematic review. Cad Saude Publica 2019; 35(4): e00112718. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X00112718
https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X0011271... . Moreover, this study identified that the variables used in those reviewed studies were either derived from existing literature²¹21. Bockting WO, Robinson BE, Forberg J, Scheltema K. Evaluation of a sexual health approach to reducing HIV/STD risk in the transgender community. AIDS Care 2005; 17(3): 289-303. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540120412331299825
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22. Magno L, Dourado I, Silva LAV, Brignol S, Amorim L, MacCarthy S. Gender-based discrimination and unprotected receptive anal intercourse among transgender women in Brazil: a mixed methods study. PLoS One 2018; 13(4): e0194306. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0194306
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.019...

23. Rood BA, Kochaver JJ, McConnell EA, Ott MQ. Minority Stressors Associated with Sexual Risk Behaviors and HIV Testing in a U.S. Sample of Transgender Individuals. AIDS Behav 2018; 22(9): 3111-6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-018-2054-0
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-018-2054-...

24. Salazar LF, Crosby RA, Jones J, Kota K, Hill B, Masyn KE. Contextual, experiential, and behavioral risk factors associated with HIV status: a descriptive analysis of transgender women residing in Atlanta, Georgia. Int J STD AIDS 2017; 28(11): 1059-66. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956462416686722
https://doi.org/10.1177/0956462416686722... -²⁵25. Stahlman S, Liestman B, Ketende S, Kouanda S, Ky-Zerbo O, Lougue M, et al. Characterizing the HIV risks and potential pathways to HIV infection among transgender women in Cote d’Ivoire, Togo and Burkina Faso. J Int AIDS Soc 2016; 19(3 Suppl 2): 20774. https://doi.org/10.7448/IAS.19.3.20774
https://doi.org/10.7448/IAS.19.3.20774... , inspired by racial discrimination scales²⁶26. Operario D, Nemoto T, Iwamoto M, Moore T. Unprotected sexual behavior and HIV risk in the context of primary partnerships for transgender women. AIDS Behav 2011; 15(3): 674-82. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-010-9795-8
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-010-9795-... , based on perceptions of discrimination related to the sexual orientation of men who have sex with men²⁷27. Sanchez T, Finlayson T, Murrill C, Guilin V, Dean L. Risk behaviors and psychosocial stressors in the new york city house ball community: a comparison of men and transgender women who have sex with men. AIDS Behav 2010; 14(2): 351-8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-009-9610-6
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-009-9610-... , or influenced by homophobia²⁸28. Logie CH, Lacombe-Duncan A, Wang Y, Jones N, Levermore K, Neil A, et al. Prevalence and correlates of HIV infection and HIV testing among transgender women in Jamaica. AIDS Patient Care STDS 2016; 30(9): 416-24. https://doi.org/10.1089/apc.2016.0145
https://doi.org/10.1089/apc.2016.0145... ,²⁹29. Sugano E, Nemoto T, Operario D. The impact of exposure to transphobia on HIV risk behavior in a sample of transgendered women of color in San Francisco. AIDS Behav 2006; 10(2): 217-25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-005-9040-z
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-005-9040-... . Notably, some of these studies did not employ any statistical resources to develop their “discrimination” construct²³23. Rood BA, Kochaver JJ, McConnell EA, Ott MQ. Minority Stressors Associated with Sexual Risk Behaviors and HIV Testing in a U.S. Sample of Transgender Individuals. AIDS Behav 2018; 22(9): 3111-6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-018-2054-0
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-018-2054-... ,²⁴24. Salazar LF, Crosby RA, Jones J, Kota K, Hill B, Masyn KE. Contextual, experiential, and behavioral risk factors associated with HIV status: a descriptive analysis of transgender women residing in Atlanta, Georgia. Int J STD AIDS 2017; 28(11): 1059-66. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956462416686722
https://doi.org/10.1177/0956462416686722... ,³⁰30. Kaplan RL, McGowan J, Wagner GJ. HIV prevalence and demographic determinants of condomless receptive anal intercourse among trans feminine individuals in Beirut, Lebanon. J Int AIDS Soc 2016; 19(3 Suppl 2): 20787. https://doi.org/10.7448/IAS.19.3.20787 20787
https://doi.org/10.7448/IAS.19.3.2078720... .

It is known that certain methods commonly used to measure GBD have limitations, especially when the variables observed are dichotomous³¹31. Collins LM, Lanza ST. Latent class and latent transition analysis: with applications in the social, behavioral, and health sciences. Hoboken: Wiley; 2010. or not derived from validated scales. Thus, latent class analysis (LCA) emerges as a viable methodological approach. LCA identifies and categorizes latent (i.e., unobserved) classes of individuals with similar profiles based on responses provided in each of the dichotomous variables observed. By doing so, LCA seeks to identify groups of individuals who share similar response patterns across classification variables³¹31. Collins LM, Lanza ST. Latent class and latent transition analysis: with applications in the social, behavioral, and health sciences. Hoboken: Wiley; 2010., which is also referred to as person-centered analysis. This approach offers a plausible solution for synthesizing numerous dichotomous indicators, thereby facilitating the interpretation of theoretical constructs within quantitative data³²32. Porcu M, Giambona F. Introduction to latent class analysis with applications. J Early Adolesc 2016; 37(1): 129-58. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431616648452
https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431616648452... .

Given the complexity of GBD, this study aimed to identify TGW subgroups with distinct patterns of discrimination based on gender identity and to analyze the associated factors.

METHODS

Study design, location, and population

TransOdara was a multicenter cross-sectional study conducted by a multidisciplinary team of researchers between December 2019 and July 2021. The study aimed to investigate the prevalence of sexually transmitted infections among transgender women and travestis in five Brazilian capitals: Campo Grande (MS – Central West region), Manaus (AM – North region), Porto Alegre (RS – South region), Salvador (BA – Northeast region), and São Paulo (SP – Southeast region).

Eligible TGW were those that met the following criteria:

1. Aged >18 years old;

2. Having been assigned male sex at birth and currently self-identifying with a female gender identity;

3. Being a resident of the metropolitan area of one of the study cities; and

4. Having a valid study participation coupon.

Data collection and sampling

Participants were recruited using respondent-driven sampling (RDS)³³33. Heckathorn DD. Respondent-driven sampling: a new approach to the study of hidden populations. Soc Probl 1997; 44(2): 174-99. https://doi.org/10.2307/3096941
https://doi.org/10.2307/3096941... in each of the five cities. This recruitment was carried out through collaboration with social movements, activists, and health services dedicated to promoting human and LGBT rights in each city.

Before RDS recruitment began, qualitative formative research was carried out to understand the dynamics of the population in each location and to select “seeds”, that is, TGW who had social networks with a sufficient number of people to distribute coupons and who represented diversity pertaining a set of characteristics of interest to the study. Each “seed” received six coupons to invite other people from their social network, and these new invitees received an equal number of coupons. This process was repeated until the desired sample size was achieved in each city. The recruiter-recruited connection was monitored using a “coupon manager” system, allowing the entire recruitment chain to be traced through unique numeric identifiers. Participants in the study were provided two financial incentives: a primary one for reimbursement of food and transportation expenses to the data collection site; and a secondary reimbursement to encourage them to invite more participants to the study. The sample calculated for the study was 1,280 participants.

In the data collection venues in each city, participants were invited to fill out a structured questionnaire conducted by a trained interviewer. The questionnaire aimed to gather sociodemographic information, as well as details regarding gender affirmation procedures, sexual behavior, symptoms of sexually transmitted infections, and experiences of discrimination. All participants received counseling, educational materials, and condoms. More information can be found in Veras et al.³⁴34. Veras MASM, Pinheiro TF, Galan L, Magno L, Leal AF, Knauth DR, et al. TransOdara study: the challenge of integrating methods, settings and procedures during the COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil. Rev Bras Epidemiol 2024;27(Suppl 1):e240002.supl.1. https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-549720240002.supl.1
https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-54972024000... .

Study variables

The outcome variable of the study was the latent variable DIG in the last 12 months (categorized as high, medium, and low). This variable was constructed using 14 observed variables related to self-reported experiences of discrimination in the 12 months prior to the interview. These variables were grouped into four dimensions (work, educational, private, and public), according to a theoretical review of the construct, and were similar to a previously published study³⁵35. Magno L, Silva LAV, Guimaraes MDC, Veras MASM, Deus LFA, Leal AF, et al. Discrimination based on sexual orientation against MSM in Brazil: a latent class analysis. Rev Bras Epidemiol 2019; 22Suppl 1(Suppl 1): e190003. https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-549720190003.supl.1
https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-54972019000... . Participants responded to questions with options including “often,” “sometimes,” “rarely,” “only once,” and “never,” which were grouped as “no” for those who answered “never” and “yes” for those who chose any of the other options:

1. a)

   Discrimination at work: was not selected or was fired from her job.

2. b)

   Educational discrimination: was mistreated or marginalized by teachers at school or college; was mistreated or marginalized by peers at school or college.

3. c)

   Private discrimination: was excluded or marginalized in a religious environment; was excluded or marginalized from a group of friends; was excluded or marginalized from a group of neighbors; was excluded or marginalized in her family environment.

4. d)

   Public discrimination: was blackmailed or subjected to extortion for money; received poor care in health services or by health professionals; was prevented from donating blood; was poorly attended to or mistreated in public services, such as hostels, sub-prefectures, transportation, or public bathrooms; was mistreated by police officers or poorly treated at police stations; was poorly served or denied entry to shops or recreational facilities; felt afraid of walking in public spaces.

Predictor variables were:

1. Sociodemographics — study site (Campo Grande, Manaus, Porto Alegre, Salvador, and São Paulo), age (35 years old or older, up to 34 years old), living situation (in their own or rented house or apartment, with friends, family or hotel, homeless, others), self-reported race/skin color (white, black, brown, Asian, and indigenous), education (elementary education, classified up to the 9th grade; secondary education, classified as complete high school, technical courses or incomplete higher education; complete higher education; or postgraduate degree), average monthly income (one or more minimum wages, less than one minimum wage), religion (no religion, Afro-Brazilian, evangelical, Catholic, spiritualist, and others), rectified name on official Brazilian document (yes, no);

2. Violence and incarceration in life — history of physical violence (no, yes), history of sexual violence (no, yes), history of incarceration in life (no, yes);

3. Behavioral — lifetime drug use (no, yes), steady partner in the last six months (no, yes), casual partner in the last six months (no, yes), business partner in the last six months (no, yes).

Data analysis

Data from the five cities were consolidated into a unified database. The parameters of the LCA analysis — class prevalence and item response probabilities — were used to describe the latent classes of the final selected model. To determine the best model, the Bayesian information criterion (BIC) and the Akaike information criterion (AIC) were employed, allowing the comparison of models concerning the balance between fit and parsimony, with lower values indicating better fit. Furthermore, the selection of the model was influenced by the interpretability of the latent classes. Models ranging from two to six latent classes were compared using AIC and BIC. The proportions of the latent variable GBD and their respective 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated. A descriptive analysis of the population profile was carried out. Furthermore, the association between the predictor variables and the GBD outcome variable was analyzed, starting with bivariate analysis using an ordinal logistic regression model. For multivariate modeling, the process began with the complete model, encompassing all predictor variables, which were then removed one by one, with readjustment of the model, until the best fit was attained³⁶36. Sperandei S. Understanding logistic regression analysis. Biochem Med (Zagreb) 2014; 24(1): 12-8. https://doi.org/10.11613/BM.2014.003
https://doi.org/10.11613/BM.2014.003... . The final adjusted model was compared with the original full model using the maximum likelihood test. In both the multivariate and bivariate modeling stages, RDS weights were not considered, following the recommendation of Sperandei et al.³⁷37. Sperandei S, Bastos LS, Ribeiro-Alves M, Reis A, Bastos FI. Assessing logistic regression applied to respondent-driven sampling studies: a simulation study with an application to empirical data. Int J Soc Res Methodol 2022; 26(3): 319-33. https://doi.org/10.1080/13645579.2022.2031153
https://doi.org/10.1080/13645579.2022.20... . All analyses were performed in R language, version 4.2.3³⁸38. R Core Team. A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna: R Foundation for Statistical Computing; 2023., with the MASS³⁹39. Venables WN, Ripley BD. Modern applied statistics with S. New York: Springer; 2002. and poLCA⁴⁰40. Linzer DA, Lewis JB. poLCA: an R package for polytomous variable latent class analysis. J Stat Softw 2011; 42(10): 1-29. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v042.i10
https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v042.i10... packages.

Ethical aspects

The project was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Santa Casa de Misericórdia de São Paulo (CAAE 05585518.7.0000.5479; opinion n°: 3.126.815 – 30/01/2019), as well as by other participating institutions. All participants included in the study signed the Informed Consent.

RESULTS

Out of the total of 1,317 TGW recruited, 906 (68.8%) responded to the questions about GBD. Of these, the majority were from Manaus (33.8%), young individuals aged up to 34 years old (63.6%), single (71.7%), living in their own or rented house or apartment (59.9%), self-reported as mixed race/skin color (45.6%), with secondary education (70.3%), monthly income of one or more minimum wage (74.8%), without religion (35.2%), and who had not rectified their namo on official documents (72.4%). With regard to previous experiences of violence and interactions with health services, a significant majority reported having suffered sexual violence (51.0%), while the minority reported having experienced physical violence (14.2%), and having had difficulties in accessing healthcare services (10.4%). In terms of behavioral characteristics, the majority reported having used drugs in their lifetime (58.4%), while the minority reported having had a steady partner in the last six months (47.5%), a casual partner in the last six months (43.3%), and commercial partner in the last six months (36.5%) (Table 1).

In LCA, the three-class model was chosen. The classes were labeled as “low,” “medium,” and “high” GBD, based on the distribution of probabilities. Although the three-class model did not have better entropy (76%) and AIC (13,967.11) values, it did have better BIC (14,178.71) and adjusted BIC (14,338.57) values (Table 2).

The distribution of the observed GBD variables revealed significant instances of discrimination across various dimensions. Regarding work, 33.8% of TGW were either not selected for a job or were fired due to GBD-related reasons; in the educational sphere, 23.1% experienced mistreatment or marginalization by teachers at school or university, while 40.4% faced similas treatment from colleagues at school or university; regarding discrimination in private relationships, 26.3% were excluded or marginalized in religious environments, 37.6% were excluded from groups of friends or marginalized by them, 46.1% were excluded from groups of neighbors or marginalized by them, and 46.1% were excluded or marginalized in their family environment; in the public sphere, 17.5% reported instances of blackmail or extortion, 31.3% were poorly treated in healthcare services or by health professionals, 27.5% were prevented from donating blood, 35.8% were poorly treated or mistreated in public services, 40.2% were mistreated by police officers or poorly treated at police stations, 42.9% were poorly served or prevented from entering commercial establishments or leisure facilities, and 63.0% felt afraid of walking in public spaces (Figure 1 and Table 3).

The probability of belonging to the latent GBD classes was 41.7% (n=378) for low, 44.5% (n=403) for medium, and 13.8% (n=125) for high. Among TGW classified as low GBD, the probability was equal to or less than 16.0% across all variables defining the latent classes, except for the variable “felt afraid of walking in public spaces” (39.8%); those classified with average DIG had a probability of 18.8 to 63.4%, except for the variable “felt afraid of walking in public spaces” (76.3%); and those classified as high DIG had a probability greater than 65%, except for the variable “was blackmailed or suffered extortion of money” (52.4%) (Table 3).

In the multivariate analysis, several variables exhibited a positive association with a higher intensity of GBD, namely: living in Manaus compared to living in São Paulo (OR=2.61; 95%CI 1.70–4.04); being less than or equal to 34 years old compared to being over 34 years old (OR=1.58; 95%CI 1.17–2.14); being homeless compared to those who live in their own or rented house or apartment (OR=2.28; 95%CI 1.17–4.44); not having updated their name on official documents compared to those who have (OR=1.62; 95%CI 1.15–2.30); and having reported physical (OR= 2.53; 95%CI 1.70–3.77) or sexual violence (OR=2.69; 95%CI 2.01–3.60) compared to those who did not report such experiences. On the other hand, the variables negatively associated with greater intensity of GBD were: having brown skin color (OR=0.64; 95%CI 0.44–0.93) or identifying as Asian or indigenous (OR=0.12; 95%CI 0 .03–0.42) compared to white; and average monthly income below one minimum wage compared to earning one or more salaries (OR=0.65; 95%CI 0.42–0.99) (Table 4).

DISCUSSION

More than half of the TGW were classified into the medium and high GBD groups. The forms of GBD most likely to be responded to across classes were fear of walking in public spaces and experiences of exclusion or marginalization by neighbors or within the family environment. Moreover, the high latent class of GBD had response probabilities above 60% for nearly all items. Factors such as the municipality of residence, younger age, homelessness, lack of name rectification, and experiences of physical or sexual violence heightened the likelihood of high levels of discrimination. However, TGW who identified as mixed race or brown, or as Asian or indigenous, and with low income were less likely to experience high GBD.

Brazil, one of the countries with the highest rates of transgender deaths, particularly among TGW, serves as a backdrop for the various facets of transphobia entrenched within a cis-heteronormative system normalized within society⁹9. TGEU. Trans murder monitoring 2023 global update [Internet]. 2023 [cited on Jan 20, 2024]. Available at: https://tgeu.org/trans-murder-monitoring-2023/
https://tgeu.org/trans-murder-monitoring... ,¹⁰10. Benevides BG. Dossieê assassinatos e violeências contra travestis e transexuais brasileiras em 2022. Brasil: Associação Nacional de Travestis e Transexuais do Brasil; 2023.. Numerous other studies conducted with TGW in Brazil have highlighted incidents of GBD endured in spaces also identified in this study. The narratives of TGWs frequently encompass experiences of verbal, physical, or psychological violence, as well as exclusion and/or marginalization within their familial or communal contexts — often compelling them to leave their homes. Additionally, other spaces have also been reported as places of discrimination, such as in schools — resulting in school dropouts — or difficulties in accessing formal employment. Beyond these social spheres, TGW face heightened risks of violence and marginalization on the streets⁴¹41. Silva RGLB, Bezerra WC, Queiroz SB. Os impactos das identidades transgênero na sociabilidade de travestis e mulheres transexuais. Rev Ter Ocup 2015; 26(3): 364-72. https://doi.org/10.11606/issn.2238-6149.v26i3p364-372
https://doi.org/10.11606/issn.2238-6149....

42. Souza MHT, Signorelli MC, Coviello DM, Pereira PPG. Therapeutic itineraries of transvestites from the central region of the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Cien Saude Colet 2014; 19(7): 2277-86. https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-81232014197.10852013
https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-81232014197... -⁴³43. Jesus NN, Radl-Philipp RM. Vivências marcadas pela transfobia. Caderno Espaço Feminino 2022; 35(1): 400-18. https://doi.org/10.14393/CEF-v35n1-2022-19
https://doi.org/10.14393/CEF-v35n1-2022-... , which may elucidate the associations between reports of physical or sexual violence and an increased likelihood of experiencing GBD, as documented in this study.

Similarly, this study revealed that homeless TGW were more likely to be categorized in the high GBD group. Increased exposure to cis-heteronormative environments, lack of social support, or heightened vulnerability to violence and harassment in public spaces could serve as plausible explanations for this phenomenon¹⁵15. Jesus JG, Belden CM, Huynh HV, Malta M, LeGrand S, Kaza VGK, et al. Mental health and challenges of transgender women: a qualitative study in Brazil and India. Int J Transgend Health 2020; 21(4): 418-30. https://doi.org/10.1080/26895269.2020.1761923
https://doi.org/10.1080/26895269.2020.17... ,⁴¹41. Silva RGLB, Bezerra WC, Queiroz SB. Os impactos das identidades transgênero na sociabilidade de travestis e mulheres transexuais. Rev Ter Ocup 2015; 26(3): 364-72. https://doi.org/10.11606/issn.2238-6149.v26i3p364-372
https://doi.org/10.11606/issn.2238-6149.... ,⁴⁴44. Malta M, Jesus JG, LeGrand S, Seixas M, Benevides B, Silva MD, et al. ‘Our life is pointless ... ‘: exploring discrimination, violence and mental health challenges among sexual and gender minorities from Brazil. Glob Public Health 2020; 15(10): 1463-78. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2020.1767676
https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2020.17... . It is also worth mentioning that these same TGW were likely already vulnerable and suffering high GBD due to confinement and marginalization that compelled them to leave their familial, social, and community support networks, resulting in the loss of connections and ties⁴⁵45. Mendes LG, Jorge AO, Pilecco FB. Proteção social e produção do cuidado a travestis e a mulheres trans em situação de rua no município de Belo Horizonte (MG). Saúde Debate 2019; 43(spe8): 107-19. https://doi.org/10.1590/0103-11042019s808
https://doi.org/10.1590/0103-11042019s80... ,⁴⁶46. Barros KCC, Morais AVC, Coelho EAC, Jesus MEF, Araújo RDD, Oliveira JF. Saúde da mulher transgênera em situação de rua. REAS 2023; 23(2): 1-9. https://doi.org/10.25248/REAS.e11698.2023
https://doi.org/10.25248/REAS.e11698.202... .

It should also be acknowledged that the sociocultural context may also play a role in the occurrence of GBD in this population. In this context, TGW residing in Manaus presented greater chances of experiencing GBD, possibly due to structural stigma, violence, conservatism, and entrenched sexist perspectives reinforcing male domination. These various forms of deep-rooted stigma and discrimination against the LGBT population have been documented in studies carried out in this city⁴⁷47. Souza Júnior AA, Cerquinho KG, Nogueira RJCC, Melo DRA. Aspectos da dominação masculina no assédio moral ao profissional homossexual no polo industrial de Manaus. Revista Pensamento & Realidade 2013; 28(1): 83-102.

48. Cavalcante L. Sob o véu da homossexualidade: relações como espaço de conflito, poder e reconhecimento em Manaus [tese de doutorado]. Manaus: Universidade Federal do Amazonas; 2015.-⁴⁹49. Santos KF. Transexualidade, gênero e preconceito: Impasses e desafios na retificação do registro civil em Manaus, Amazonas [dissertação de mestrado]. Manaus: Universidade Federal do Amazonas; 2018.. Future studies are needed to provide a more comprehensive understanding of GBD in TGW in Manaus.

Younger TGW (i.e., aged up to 34 years old) also had a greater chance of high GBD. Several factors may account for this association: possible internalization of GBD as a self-protection mechanism among older TGW, as repeated exposure to violence could render discriminatory events less conspicuous when compared to their younger counterparts⁵⁰50. Nuttbrock L, Hwahng S, Bockting W, Rosenblum A, Mason M, Macri M, et al. Psychiatric impact of gender-related abuse across the life course of male-to-female transgender persons. J Sex Res 2010; 47(1): 12-23. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490903062258
https://doi.org/10.1080/0022449090306225... ; conversely, younger TGW, who emerged from generations characterized by heightened political engagement and benefit from the longstanding advocacy efforts of the trans movement, may have greater awareness and a heightened perception regarding discriminatory acts⁵¹51. Medeiros BN, Castro GHC, Siqueira MVS. Ativismo trans e reconhecimento: por uma “transcis-rexistência” na política brasileira. Rev Bras Ciênc Polít 2022; 37(1): 1-29. https://doi.org/10.1590/0103-3352.2022.37.246289
https://doi.org/10.1590/0103-3352.2022.3... . A noteworthy example is the significant increase in the candidacy of trans individuals, particularly TGW, in Brazilian politics⁵²52. Associação Nacional de Travestis e Transexuais. Mapeamento de candidaturas de travestis, mulheres transexuais, homens trans e demais pessoas trans em 2020, Brasil: ANTRA; 2020..

The lack of social name recognition is also documented as one of the factors associated with GBD. From this perspective, studies carried out in Brazil⁷7. Rocon PC, Rodrigues A, Zamboni J, Pedrini MD. Difficulties experienced by trans people in accessing the Unified Health System. Cien Saude Colet 2016; 21(8): 2517-26. https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-81232015218.14362015
https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-81232015218... ,⁵³53. Monteiro S, Brigeiro M. Experiences of transgender women/transvestites with access to health services: progress, limits, and tensions. Cad Saude Publica 2019; 35(4): e00111318. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X00111318
https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X0011131... ,⁵⁴54. Moscheta MS, Souza LV, Santos MA. Health care provision in Brazil: a dialogue between health professionals and lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender service users. J Health Psychol 2016; 21(3): 369-78. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105316628749
https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105316628749... and other countries⁵⁵55. Lelutiu-Weinberger C, English D, Sandanapitchai P. The roles of gender affirmation and discrimination in the resilience of transgender individuals in the US. Behav Med 2020; 46(3-4): 175-88. https://doi.org/10.1080/08964289.2020.1725414
https://doi.org/10.1080/08964289.2020.17... already record the denial or non-recognition of the gender identity of TGW, a result of possible effects of structural, institutional, and interpersonal stigma. Failure to recognize the social name or female pronoun can have a negative impact, constraining access to services, schools, and formal employment opportunities⁴4. Magno L, Silva L, Veras MA, Pereira-Santos M, Dourado I. Stigma and discrimination related to gender identity and vulnerability to HIV/AIDS among transgender women: a systematic review. Cad Saude Publica 2019; 35(4): e00112718. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X00112718
https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X0011271... ,⁵⁶56. Souza MHT, Miskolci R, Signorelli MC, Balieiro FF, Pereira PPG. Post-mortem violence against travestis in Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Cad Saude Publica 2021; 37(5): e00141320. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X00141320
https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X0014132... .

The findings from this study underscore the considerable impact of factors associated with the increase in GBD faced by TGW. An association between this outcome and more vulnerable sociodemographic characteristics and history of violence was observed. These findings not only illustrate the complexity of this issue but also point to the urgent need for targeted interventions addressing these disparities. Developing strategies that recognize and address the nuances of these experiences is crucial to promoting equity and mitigating the vulnerability faced by these communities. By understanding the intersection of factors that contribute to gender discrimination, more inclusive and effective policies can be informed.

This study had some limitations. Firstly, its cross-sectional design impedes the incorporation of temporal relationships into the associations studied. Additionally, the design of the RDS may include selection bias through non-probability sampling and network homophily, although it facilitates investigations into hard-to-reach populations. The indicators used to measure GBD rely on self-reported responses by TGW, which may underestimate real discrimination if it goes unnoticed or uninternalized. Moreover, other forms of discrimination (e.g. based on race/skin color, geographical region, generational differences, etc.) that could influence this perception were not measured. Furthermore, the ordinal logistic regression model employed does not account for classification errors of individuals into the classes of the latent variable, albeit it serves as a proxy for the factors associated with GBD.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to express our gratitude to the transgender women and travestis who participated in the TransOdara study across the five capitals of Brazil. We also wish to extend our hearfelt appreciation to the dedicated field teams and the Department of HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis, Viral Hepatitis, and Sexually Transmitted Infections of the Brazilian Ministry of Health, particularly Cristina Pimenta and Silvana Giozza, and the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), especially Grasiela Araújo.

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