Abstracts

INTRODUÇÃO

Cardiovascular diseases are a growing public health challenge in low-income countries, namely in Sub-Saharan Africa. The increasing frequency of risk factors such as hypertension, obesity, diabetes or smoking and the ageing of the populations are key elements in the undergoing epidemiologic transition.²⁰20. Samb B, Desai N, Nishtar S, Mendis S, Bekedam H, Wright A, et al. Prevention and management of chronic disease: a litmus test for health-systems strengthening in low-income and middle-income countries. Lancet. 2010;376(9754):1785-97. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61353-0
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)... , ²⁵25. Yusuf S, Reddy S, Ounpuu S, Anand S. Global burden of cardiovascular diseases: part I: general considerations, the epidemiologic transition, risk factors, and impact of urbanization. Circulation. 2001;104(22):2746-53. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/hc4601.099487
http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/hc4601.099487... Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death worldwide, contributing to a third of all deaths, most of which in developing countries.²2. Fuster V, Voute J, Hunn M, Smith Jr SC. Low priority of cardiovascular and chronic diseases on the global health agenda: a cause for concern. Circulation. 2007;116(17):1966-70. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.733444
http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA... A systematic review showed that there were no significant differences in the awareness, treatment and control of hypertension between developed and developing countries.¹⁷17. Pereira M, Lunet N, Azevedo A, Barros H. Differences in prevalence, awareness, treatment and control of hypertension between developing and developed countries. J Hypertens. 2009;27(5):963-75. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/HJH.0b013e3283282f65
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/HJH.0b013e3283... Specifically in Mozambique, in 2007 the “diseases of the cardiovascular system” had a sizeable impact on the overall burden of death: approximately 15% of all deaths in subjects aged over 49 years. ^aaLoureiro J, Gaspar M, Levene V. Mortalidade em Moçambique - Inquérito nacional sobre causas de mortalidade, 2007/8. Moçambique: Instituto Nacional de Estatística; 2009. We have previously shown a high prevalence of hypertension, along with low awareness and pharmacological treatment.¹1. Damasceno A, Azevedo A, Silva-Matos C, Prista A, Diogo D, Lunet N. Hypertension prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control in mozambique: urban/rural gap during epidemiological transition. Hypertension. 2009;54(1):77-83. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11681/HYPERTENSIONAHA.109.132423
http://dx.doi.org/10.11681/HYPERTENSIONA...

The awareness of hypertension and the presence of concomitant cardiovascular risk factors (age, sex, overweight/obesity, smoking) are important determinants of the treatment and control of hypertension.¹⁷17. Pereira M, Lunet N, Azevedo A, Barros H. Differences in prevalence, awareness, treatment and control of hypertension between developing and developed countries. J Hypertens. 2009;27(5):963-75. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/HJH.0b013e3283282f65
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/HJH.0b013e3283... However, this has seldom been addressed in sub-Saharan Africa. The cultural specificities may contribute for the frequent use of traditional medicine, as well as the lack of financial resources, might have an impact on the management of hypertension in this region.^{17,20,26, b}bWorld Health Organization. Traditional Medicine. Geneva; 2008 [cited 2012 Jan 25]. [Fact sheet, 134]. Available from: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs134/en/# The identification of cost-effective solutions for the management of hypertension is a World Health Organization (WHO) priority.¹⁴14. Opie LH, Mayosi BM. Cardiovascular disease in sub-Saharan Africa. Circulation. 2005;112(23):3536-40. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.597765
http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA... , ²⁴24. World Health Organization. Hypertension control. Report of a WHO Expert Committee. World Health Organ Tech Rep Ser 1996; 862:1-83. Understanding the determinants of non-pharmacologically treated hypertension in this setting may contribute to identifying locale-specific barriers to hypertension control, as well as population groups to be targeted by hypertension awareness-raising and control-promoting interventions. Therefore, we extended our previous analyses on the prevalence, awareness and treatment of hypertension in a representative sample of Mozambican adults.¹1. Damasceno A, Azevedo A, Silva-Matos C, Prista A, Diogo D, Lunet N. Hypertension prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control in mozambique: urban/rural gap during epidemiological transition. Hypertension. 2009;54(1):77-83. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11681/HYPERTENSIONAHA.109.132423
http://dx.doi.org/10.11681/HYPERTENSIONA... This study aimed to assess the determinants of lack of pharmacological treatment of hypertension. We considered the potential effect of traditional or non-pharmacological treatments, as well as the presence of other cardiovascular risk factors.

METHODS

This study was based on a national cross-sectional study conducted in Mozambique between September and November 2005.¹1. Damasceno A, Azevedo A, Silva-Matos C, Prista A, Diogo D, Lunet N. Hypertension prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control in mozambique: urban/rural gap during epidemiological transition. Hypertension. 2009;54(1):77-83. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11681/HYPERTENSIONAHA.109.132423
http://dx.doi.org/10.11681/HYPERTENSIONA... A representative sample of adults aged 25 to 64 years old was assembled through a complex multistage sampling procedure. Ninety-five geographical clusters were selected across the country; all the households from each cluster were listed and 25 randomly selected and visited.

The number of geographical clusters and the number of households per cluster were defined aiming to select approximately 2,800 participants, ensuring the sample representativeness at a national level and considering the expected number of eligible subjects per household according to the population estimates for the study period. ^ccCubula B. Metodologia de estimação para os resultados do inquérito de avaliação dos factores de risco para as doenças cardiovasculares, STEPS (OMS). Moçambique: Instituto Nacional de Estatística: 2005. There was no substitution of the households in which no one answered the door and the inquirers were instructed to make several attempts to contact members of the selected households at different times and on different days to minimize selection bias. All eligible subjects in the same household (3,378) were invited to take part in this investigation. Fifty-five subjects refused and 3,323 participated in the study.

The participants were evaluated following the WHO STEPwise approach to chronic disease risk factor surveillance (STEPS), ^ddWorld Health Organization. STEPS manual. World Health Organization; 2011 [cited 2011 Mar 29]. Available from: http://www.who.int/chp/steps/manual/en/index.html using standardized methods. Trained interviewers conducted face-to-face interviews and physical measurements in each household, according to a Portuguese version of the WHO STEPS instrument for non-communicable disease risk factors (core and expanded version 2.1). ^ddWorld Health Organization. STEPS manual. World Health Organization; 2011 [cited 2011 Mar 29]. Available from: http://www.who.int/chp/steps/manual/en/index.html

Blood pressure was measured on a single occasion by non-physician trained interviewers using a semiautomatic sphygmomanometer (OMRON 3™) with appropriate cuff size. After a 5-minute rest, blood pressure was measured twice, one minute apart, and a third measurement was performed if the difference between the first two was > 10 mmHg for systolic or diastolic blood pressures. We used the mean of the two measurements or the mean of the last two when three measurements were done for analysis.

Arterial hypertension was defined as systolic blood pressure ≥ 140 mmHg and/or diastolic blood pressure ≥ 90 mmHg and/or taking antihypertensive drug therapy in the previous two weeks. Hypertensive subjects were classified as aware of their status when they reported having been told by a health professional in the previous 12 months that they had hypertension/high blood pressure, or when reporting a pharmacological or non-pharmacological treatment for hypertension. Participants answering affirmatively to a close-ended question on the use of antihypertensive medication in the previous two weeks were classified as treated pharmacologically for hypertension.

Non-pharmacological management of hypertension was assessed by asking participants if they were advised to change diet, to do exercise, lose weight, or quit smoking due to hypertension, by indication of a health professional.

A close-ended question was used to assess the current use of any herbal or traditional remedy for the management of raised blood pressure.

Anthropometric measurements were obtained with the participants wearing light clothing and no footwear. Body weight was measured to the nearest 0.1 kg using a digital scale, and height to the nearest 0.1 cm in the standing position using a portable stadiometer. Body mass index (BMI) was calculated as weight (kg) divided by squared height (m²), and divided into the categories defined by the WHO²⁴24. World Health Organization. Hypertension control. Report of a WHO Expert Committee. World Health Organ Tech Rep Ser 1996; 862:1-83. < 25.0 kg/m², 25.0 to 29.9 kg/m² and ≥ 30 kg/m².

Participants were classified as ever having smoked (current or previous smokers) and non-smokers.

The classification of the place of residence as urban (in any of the 23 cities and 68 towns) or rural (outside cities or towns), and the definition of categories for the highest level of education attained were done in accordance with the 1997 census.

We considered the 1,140 subjects classified as hypertensive (weighted prevalence: 33.1%), of which 218 were aware of their condition (weighted prevalence: 15.1% among the hypertensive). The analyses were conducted considering the sampling weights and adjusting for strata and clustering at primary sampling unit level using Stata, version 11.1.

The prevalence of untreated hypertension (among hypertensive subjects and those aware of their hypertension) was estimated with the corresponding 95% confidence intervals (95%CI). The association between gender, education, place of residence, non-pharmacological treatment, use of herbal/traditional medicines and two major cardiovascular risk factors (overweight/obesity and smoking) and lack of treatment of hypertension was quantified through mutually adjusted prevalence ratios (PR) with 95%CI, computed using Poisson regression.¹²12. McNutt LA, Wu C, Xue X, Hafner JP. Estimating the relative risk in cohort studies and clinical trials of common outcomes. Am J Epidemiol.2003;157(10):940-3. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwg074
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwg074...

The study protocol was approved by the National Mozambican Ethics Committee ( Populacional study of risk factors of cardiovascular diseases, Mocambique, 2005 ) and written informed consent was obtained from all participants.

RESULTS

Women represented 53.9% of the sample, nearly half the participants were aged below 45 years old and 21.8% between 55 and 64 years old. Approximately ¹1. Damasceno A, Azevedo A, Silva-Matos C, Prista A, Diogo D, Lunet N. Hypertension prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control in mozambique: urban/rural gap during epidemiological transition. Hypertension. 2009;54(1):77-83. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11681/HYPERTENSIONAHA.109.132423
http://dx.doi.org/10.11681/HYPERTENSIONA... /₃ had no formal education and the population was predominantly rural (61.0%). The overall weighted prevalence of obesity and ever having smoked was 8.2% and 18.3%, respectively. A higher percentage of women (67.6%), 20.8% had no formal education and most subjects (64.7%) lived in urban areas among the hypertensive subjects that were aware of their condition. Obesity was nearly twice as frequent in this group and smoking more than three times less prevalent ( Table 1 ).

Most of the hypertensive subjects (92.3%) and nearly half of the aware were not treated pharmacologically for their condition ( Figure ).

The results from a model including gender, education, place of residence, non-pharmacological treatment, use of herbal/traditional medicines, overweight/obesity and smoking showed that lack of pharmacological treatment for hypertension was significantly more frequent among men (adjusted PR = 1.05, 95%CI 1.01;1.09) and less frequent among the subjects under non-pharmacological (adjusted PR = 0.46, 95%CI 0.36;0.59) or traditional (adjusted PR = 0.68, 95%CI 0.47;1.00) treatments. Among the hypertensive subjects aware of their condition, being male was more strongly associated with lack of pharmacological treatment (adjusted PR = 1.61; 95%CI 0.56;1.43) and the inverse relation between non-pharmacological and pharmacological treatments remained statistically significant (adjusted PR= 0.58; 95%CI 0.42;0.79). No other sociodemographic characteristics (age, education, place of residence) or cardiovascular risk factors (obesity, smoking) could explain the high prevalence of untreated hypertension in the population ( Table 2 ).

DISCUSSION

The high prevalence of untreated hypertension observed in Mozambique is largely explained by the lack of diagnosis, since 15% of the hypertensive subjects were aware of their condition. Half of the diagnosed hypertensives were receiving pharmacological treatment for hypertension. Among the aware, under treatment with anti-hypertensive drugs was more frequent among men. Neither the use of herbal/traditional medicines nor the preference for non-pharmacological management of hypertension could explain the lack of treatment in this population.

The less frequent treatment of hypertension among men is in accordance with previous observations in other populations.⁴4. Jenson A, Omar AL, Omar MA, Rishad AS, Khoshnood K. Assessment of hypertension control in a district of Mombasa, Kenya. Glob Public Health. 2010;6(3):293-306. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2010.510478
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2010.... , ¹¹11. Mathenge W, Foster A, Kuper H. Urbanization, ethnicity and cardiovascular risk in a population in transition in Nakuru, Kenya: a population-based survey. BMC Public Health. 2010;10:569. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-10-569
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-10-5... , ¹⁷17. Pereira M, Lunet N, Azevedo A, Barros H. Differences in prevalence, awareness, treatment and control of hypertension between developing and developed countries. J Hypertens. 2009;27(5):963-75. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/HJH.0b013e3283282f65
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/HJH.0b013e3283... This could be attributed to the fact that women have contact with healthcare systems more frequently due to maternal and child health programs and tend to use more medication in general.⁸8. Lucas R, Lunet N, Carvalho R, Langa J, Muanantatha M, Nkunda LP, et al. Patterns in the use of medicines by university students in Maputo, Mozambique. Cad Saude Publica. 2007;23(12):2845-52. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0102-311X2007001200005
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0102-311X2007... Our hypothesis is that the gender differences were more pronounced among the aware due to a lower adherence to, or persistence of, the pharmacological treatment among men. The evaluation of the differences in adherence and compliance to treatment between genders in this population would allow us to test this hypothesis and strengthen our study. The antihypertensive drugs most commonly used in this setting, central acting methyldopa and reserpine, are associated with severe side effects, mainly among men.¹⁹19. Reffelmann T, Kloner RA. Sexual function in hypertensive patients receiving treatment. Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2006;2(4):447-55. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/vhrm.2006.2.4.447
http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/vhrm.2006.2.4.... Diuretics and beta blockers are used less frequently, especially in the rural regions, and are also associated with erectile dysfunction.¹⁹19. Reffelmann T, Kloner RA. Sexual function in hypertensive patients receiving treatment. Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2006;2(4):447-55. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/vhrm.2006.2.4.447
http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/vhrm.2006.2.4.... Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors are not affordable for this region of limited resources, and these are not easily accessible through the public sector, in addition to the fact that they are less effective in the black hypertensive population.¹⁰10. ALLHAT Officers and Coordinators for the ALLHAT Collaborative Research Group. The Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial. Major outcomes in high-risk hypertensive patients randomized to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or calcium channel blocker vs diuretic: The Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT). JAMA. 2002;288(23):2981-97. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.288.23.2981
http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.288.23.29...

The presence of risk factors for cardiovascular diseases could account for an increased awareness of the overall cardiovascular risk and to a higher frequency of treatment of hypertension.¹⁹19. Reffelmann T, Kloner RA. Sexual function in hypertensive patients receiving treatment. Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2006;2(4):447-55. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/vhrm.2006.2.4.447
http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/vhrm.2006.2.4.... The distribution of many cardiovascular risk factors and the awareness of illnesses are dependent on sociodemographic characteristics, namely in Mozambique.¹1. Damasceno A, Azevedo A, Silva-Matos C, Prista A, Diogo D, Lunet N. Hypertension prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control in mozambique: urban/rural gap during epidemiological transition. Hypertension. 2009;54(1):77-83. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11681/HYPERTENSIONAHA.109.132423
http://dx.doi.org/10.11681/HYPERTENSIONA... , ⁹9. Lunet N, Araujo C, Silva-Matos C, Damasceno A, Gouveia L, Azevedo A. Changing patterns of tobacco consumption in Mozambique: evidence from a migrant study. BMC Public Health. 2011;11(1):322. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-11-322
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-11-3... , ²¹21. Silva-Matos C, Gomes A, Azevedo A, Damasceno A, Prista A, Lunet N. Diabetes in Mozambique: Prevalence, management and healthcare challenges. Diabetes Metab. 2010;37(3):237-44. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.diabet.2010.10.006
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.diabet.2010....

Although in other epidemiological studies blood pressure levels among current smokers were similar or lower than those observed in non-smokers,⁶6. Lee DH, Ha MH, Kim JR, Jacobs Jr DR. Effects of smoking cessation on changes in blood pressure and incidence of hypertension: a 4-year follow-up study. Hypertension. 2001;37(2):194-8. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.HYP.37.2.194
http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.HYP.37.2.19... the former tend to use health care systems less often and to have unhealthier habits which may account for our results.¹⁶16. Padrao P, Silva-Matos C, Damasceno A, Lunet N. Association between tobacco consumption and alcohol, vegetable and fruit intake across urban and rural areas in Mozambique. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2011;65(5):445-53. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech.2009.099440
http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech.2009.0994... Unlike those observed in our study, overweight and obese subjects are more likely to be aware of their hypertension, although it is less likely to be controlled because a more aggressive treatment is needed to overcome their higher peripheral resistance and attain control of the hypertension.⁷7. Longo-Mbenza B, Ngoma DV, Nahimana D, Mayuku DM, Fuele SM, Ekwanzala F, et al. Screen detection and the WHO stepwise approach to the prevalence and risk factors of arterial hypertension in Kinshasa. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil. 2008;15(5):503-8. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/HJR.0b013e3282f21640
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/HJR.0b013e3282... , ¹⁸18. Pereira M, Azevedo A, Barros H. Determinants of awareness, treatment and control of hypertension in a Portuguese population. Rev Port Cardiol. 2011;29(12):1779-92. , ²³23. Wofford MR, Smith G, Minor DS. The treatment of hypertension in obese patients. Curr Hypertens Rep. 2008;10(2):143-50.

Due to the scarcity of resources in this setting, we expect a frequent use of non-pharmacological or traditional treatments, especially among hypertensive subjects not receiving pharmacological treatment. In other resource poor settings, the use of complementary and alternative medicines was observed in up to 30% of the hypertensive population.¹¹11. Mathenge W, Foster A, Kuper H. Urbanization, ethnicity and cardiovascular risk in a population in transition in Nakuru, Kenya: a population-based survey. BMC Public Health. 2010;10:569. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-10-569
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-10-5... , ¹³13. Olisa NS, Oyelola FT. Evaluation of use of herbal medicines among ambulatory hypertensive patients attending a secondary health care facility in Nigeria. Int J Pharm Pract. 2009;17(2):101-5. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1211/ijpp.17.02.0005
http://dx.doi.org/10.1211/ijpp.17.02.000... , ¹⁵15. Osamor PE, Owumi BE. Complementary and alternative medicine in the management of hypertension in an urban Nigerian community. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2010;10:36. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1472-6882-10-36
http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1472-6882-10-3... In our study, the non-pharmacological approaches to the management of hypertension and the use of herbal/traditional remedies were observed mainly among those also treated pharmacologically. A large proportion of the hypertensive subjects are not receiving any support for the management of hypertension, even among the aware of their condition.

The trend towards urbanization, population ageing and acquisition of obesogenic lifestyles observed in low income countries¹⁴14. Opie LH, Mayosi BM. Cardiovascular disease in sub-Saharan Africa. Circulation. 2005;112(23):3536-40. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.597765
http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA... contributes to an increasing burden of chronic diseases in these settings. This requires preventive measures, namely through reducing excessive salt intake,³3. Ibrahim MM, Damasceno A. Hypertension in developing countries. Lancet. 2012;380(9841):611-9. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60861-7
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)... but provision of equal access to appropriate management of medical conditions, such as hypertension, is needed. Supplying the primary healthcare units with basic equipment such as a calibrated and functioning sphygmomanometer may contribute to a higher proportion of the population having their blood pressure measured³3. Ibrahim MM, Damasceno A. Hypertension in developing countries. Lancet. 2012;380(9841):611-9. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60861-7
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)... and a consequent improvement in the awareness of hypertension. Ensuring that essential drugs for the effective treatment of hypertension are made available, through a continuous supply of medicine with appropriate quality control and at affordable prices,³3. Ibrahim MM, Damasceno A. Hypertension in developing countries. Lancet. 2012;380(9841):611-9. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60861-7
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)... is expected to result in a higher proportion of treated hypertensives, as well as in better adherence to the treatments. Both the health-care workers and the general population need to be aware of the importance of an asymptomatic disease such as hypertension,³3. Ibrahim MM, Damasceno A. Hypertension in developing countries. Lancet. 2012;380(9841):611-9. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60861-7
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)... and awareness raising campaigns may contribute to this. The continuous monitoring of the management is necessary and future health surveys conducted in Mozambique should allow the assessment of the determinants of awareness and treatment of hypertension, considered within a basis of management of the global cardiovascular risk.²⁴24. World Health Organization. Hypertension control. Report of a WHO Expert Committee. World Health Organ Tech Rep Ser 1996; 862:1-83.

This study provides valuable information to understand unmet needs in the management of hypertension in this setting, but some limitations need to be discussed.

The measurement of blood pressure on a single occasion contributes to an overestimation of blood pressure and prevalence of hypertension and to an underestimation of awareness.¹⁸18. Pereira M, Azevedo A, Barros H. Determinants of awareness, treatment and control of hypertension in a Portuguese population. Rev Port Cardiol. 2011;29(12):1779-92. Participants were considered aware of their status if they had been told in the previous year that they were hypertensive, which contributes to underestimating the life prevalence of awareness. However, this does not compromise the estimates of treatment among the aware.

Regarding pharmacological treatment, its assessment considering the use of antihypertensive medication in the previous two weeks contributes to an underestimation of treatment prevalence, by reflecting essentially the persistence of treatment. This explains the lower prevalence in the present study in comparison with other reports defining treatment as a previous prescription of anti-hypertensive drugs, regardless of current use. The prevalence of treatment was below the average of developed and developing countries worldwide, but it was higher than in other African studies relying on the STEPS methodology.⁷7. Longo-Mbenza B, Ngoma DV, Nahimana D, Mayuku DM, Fuele SM, Ekwanzala F, et al. Screen detection and the WHO stepwise approach to the prevalence and risk factors of arterial hypertension in Kinshasa. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil. 2008;15(5):503-8. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/HJR.0b013e3282f21640
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/HJR.0b013e3282... , ⁵5. Kamadjeu RM, Edwards R, Atanga JS, Unwin N, Kiawi EC, Mbanya JC. Prevalence, awareness and management of hypertension in Cameroon: findings of the 2003 Cameroon Burden of Diabetes Baseline Survey. J Hum Hypertens. 2006;20(1):91-2.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.jhh.1001936
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.jhh.1001936... , ¹⁷17. Pereira M, Lunet N, Azevedo A, Barros H. Differences in prevalence, awareness, treatment and control of hypertension between developing and developed countries. J Hypertens. 2009;27(5):963-75. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/HJH.0b013e3283282f65
http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/HJH.0b013e3283... , ²²22. Usman A, Mebrahtu G, Mufunda J, Nyarang’o P, Hagos G, Kosia A, et al. Prevalence of non-communicable disease risk factors in Eritrea. Ethn Dis.2006;16(2):542-6 According to the STEPS protocol, the use of antihypertensive medication was assessed without specifying the drugs that have a blood pressure lowering effect and other classes of drugs (e.g., anxiolytics) which may have been considered antihypertensive by the participants, contributing to an overestimation of the use of antihypertensive therapy.

Sample size limitations precluded the computation of robust sex- and place of residence-stratified estimates, which would contribute to a deeper understanding of the determinants of untreated hypertension. However, smoking habits and obesity were not associated with pharmacological treatment in this population, despite being two important and easy to measure risk factors that could be expected to influence the awareness of hypertension or the decision to treat it pharmacologically.²2. Fuster V, Voute J, Hunn M, Smith Jr SC. Low priority of cardiovascular and chronic diseases on the global health agenda: a cause for concern. Circulation. 2007;116(17):1966-70. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.733444
http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA...

In conclusion, the lack of pharmacological treatment of hypertension was more frequent in men, was not influenced by other cardiovascular risk factors, and could not be explained by the use of alternative treatments as herbal/traditional medicines or non-pharmacological management. The sub-treatment of hypertension is a major public health issue in Mozambique and the setting up of hypertension control programs may contribute to sizable improvements in the health status of the population.

REFERENCES

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