Abstract

INTRODUCTION

Dental caries is a global public health problem due to the pain and suffering it causes individuals, the high treatment costs and the impact on quality of life. ¹⁷17 . Petersen PE. World Health Organization global policy for improvement of oral health – World Health Assembly 2007. Int Dent J . 2008;58(3):115-21. Although many countries have experienced decreasing levels of the disease in children in recent decades, in some countries the prevalence remains high, with prevalence above 50% in 12-year-olds. Moreover, some countries have even seen increases in prevalence. ¹⁷17 . Petersen PE. World Health Organization global policy for improvement of oral health – World Health Assembly 2007. Int Dent J . 2008;58(3):115-21.

There is evidence that the distribution of dental caries within populations is unequal and strongly linked to socioeconomic conditions. Thus, enduring inequalities in oral health conditions are found between countries and between different social groups within the same country. ¹⁸18 . Petersen PE, Kwan S. Equity, social determinants and public health programmes--the case of oral health. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol . 2011;39(6):481-7. DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0528.2011.00623.x
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0528.2011... Studies on social determinants of oral health problems have become more important and they usually include socioeconomic factors, such as levels of schooling, individual and family income and individual’s occupation. ⁵5 . Boing AF, Peres MA, Kovaleski DF, Zange SE, Antunes JLF. Estratificação sócio-econômica em estudos epidemiológicos de cárie dentária e doenças periodontais: características da produção na década de 90. Cad Saude Publica . 2005;21(3):673-8. DOI: 10.1590/S0102-311X2005000300002
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-311X200500...

In recent years, the influence of contextual factors on the prevalence of dental caries has been analyzed, incorporating socio-economic and environmental indicators, such as per capita income, Human Development Index (HDI), Gini index, access to health care services and access to a water supply with added fluoride. In Brazil, national oral health surveys have shown differences in the distribution of dental caries, with higher levels of the disease in population which are economically disadvantaged. ¹³13 . Narvai PC, Frazão P, Roncalli AG, Antunes JLF. Cárie dentária no Brasil: declínio, polarização, iniqüidade e exclusão social. Rev Panam Salud Publica . 2006;19(6):385-93. DOI: 10.1590/S1020-49892006000600004
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1020-4989200600... The association between contextual variables and school age children affected by dental caries has been reported in studies carried out since the beginning of this century in some municipalities ²2 . Antunes JLF, Jahn GM, Camargo MA. Increasing inequalities in the distribution of dental caries in the Brazilian context in Finland. Community Dent Health . 2005;22(2):94-100. ^{, 9}9 . Kitamura ES, Leite ICG. Correlação entre índice de desenvolvimento humano e cárie dentária em uma amostra de municípios mineiros: implicações para a inclusão da odontologia na Estratégia Saúde da Família. Rev APS . 2009;12(2):140-9. ^{, 15}15 . Pattussi MP, Marcenes W, Croucher R, Sheiham A. Social deprivation, income inequality, social cohesion and dental caries in Brazilian school children. Soc Sci Med . 2001;53(7):915-25. DOI: 10.1016/S0277-9536(00)00391-9
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(00)00... and in the country as a whole. ³3 . Antunes JLF, Peres MA, Mello TRC, Waldman EA. Multilevel assessment of determinants of dental caries experience in Brazil. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol . 2006;34(2):146-52. DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0528.2006.00274.x
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0528.2006... ^{, 12}12 . Moreira RS, Nico LS. Aspectos contextuais da ausência de cárie em escolares de 12 anos no Brasil, em três períodos históricos. Rev Odontol UNESP . 2010;39(5):263-70.

Health care inequalities suggest the need for developments or changes to existing national and local systems, concurrently with efforts to eliminate disparities in the populations’ socioeconomic conditions. ²¹21 . Sheiham A, Alexander D, Cohen L, Marinho V, Moysés S, Petersen PE, et al. Global oral health inequalities: task group--implementation and delivery of oral health strategies. Adv Dent Res . 2011;23(2):259-67. DOI: 10.1177/0022034511402084
https://doi.org/10.1177/0022034511402084... Thus, research seeking to assess the magnitude of the problem of dental caries and to clarify factors related to existing inequalities may contribute to public policies aimed at reducing inequalities. ¹⁹19 . Pitts N, Amaechi B, Niederman R, Acevedo AM, Vianna R, Ganss C, et al. Global oral health inequalities: dental caries task group-research agenda. Adv Dent Res . 2011;23(2):211-20. DOI: 10.1177/0022034511402016
https://doi.org/10.1177/0022034511402016...

The aim of this study was to estimate the prevalence and severity of dental caries in permanent teeth in 12-year-olds and to analyze the association with individual and contextual factors in Brazil.

METHODS

Primary data from the National Oral Health Survey (SBBrasil) 2010 was used. This survey was carried out by the Brazilian Ministry of Health and the primary objective was to describe the oral health conditions of the urban population of Brazil in 2010. The methodology and principal results of the research have been published ²⁰20 . Roncalli AG, Moyses, SJ, Marques R, Pinto RS, Goes PSA, Figueiredo N, et al. Aspectos metodológicos do projeto SB Brasil 2010 de interesse para Inquéritos Nacionais de Saúde. Cad Saude Publica . 2012;28(Suppl):40-57. DOI: 10.1590/S0102-311X2012001300006
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-311X201200... ^{, a}aMinistério da Saúde (BR). Secretaria de Atenção à Saúde. Departamento de Atenção Básica. Coordenação Nacional de Saúde Bucal. Projeto SB Brasil 2010: condições de saúde bucal da população brasileira em 2010. Resultados principais. Brasília (DF); 2011. and the principal characteristics are described below. This study includes all of the 12-year-old individuals who took part in the SBBrasil 2010 project. ^aaMinistério da Saúde (BR). Secretaria de Atenção à Saúde. Departamento de Atenção Básica. Coordenação Nacional de Saúde Bucal. Projeto SB Brasil 2010: condições de saúde bucal da população brasileira em 2010. Resultados principais. Brasília (DF); 2011.

A probabilistic cluster sampling technique was used, with two stages in the 26 state capitals and the Federal District, and three stages in municipalities in the interior of the five regions of Brazil. All of the state capitals were included in the survey and were considered domains (representative strata), as was each region, making a total of 27 domains for the state capitals and five domains for the interior. The region domain was composed of 30 municipalities in the interior, randomly selected using the technique of probability proportional to size. The primary sampling units were census tracts (n = 30) in state capitals and municipalities (n = 30) in the regions. There were 176 Brazilian municipalities which participated in the survey of 12-year-olds.

For the 12-year-olds, a sample size of 8,000 individuals to be interviewed and examined in their homes was calculated. More information on the sampling process can be obtained in another publication. ²⁰20 . Roncalli AG, Moyses, SJ, Marques R, Pinto RS, Goes PSA, Figueiredo N, et al. Aspectos metodológicos do projeto SB Brasil 2010 de interesse para Inquéritos Nacionais de Saúde. Cad Saude Publica . 2012;28(Suppl):40-57. DOI: 10.1590/S0102-311X2012001300006
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-311X201200...

The dependent variables were the two levels of severity of dental caries, as measured by the DMFT index, ²⁵25 . World Health Organization. Oral health surveys: basic methods. 4. ed. Geneva; 1997. the prevalence of dental caries (DMFT ≥ 1) and the prevalence of a high burden of dental caries, deemed to be the case in children with four or more teeth affected by the disease (DMFT ≥ 4). These oral health outcomes were estimated for each survey domain (state capitals and municipalities in the interior of each region)

The independent variables were organized into two levels of analysis: those assessed for each individual (socio-demographic characteristics and factors related to dental caries) and those assessed for each town, referring to socio-economic conditions and to the water supply in each municipality (median household income, percentage of residences connected to the water supply and the condition of the supply of fluoridated water in the municipality).

The socio-demographic characteristics of the individuals and their families were obtained using a questionnaire applied to the parents or guardians: child’s sex and skin color and household income. Self-reported skin color was classified according to the categories used by the Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE, Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics) – white, black, brown, yellow and indigenous). Household income was classified into the following groups: up to R$ 500.00; from R$ 501.00 to R$ 1,500.00; from R$ 1,501.00 to R$ 2,500.00 and over R$ 2,500.00.

The following oral health problems analyzed in the clinical exams were included as related explanatory factors: bleeding gums 10 to 30 seconds after use of the dental probe and dental calculus. These conditions reflect the quality and regularity of oral hygiene. Data on bleeding gums and calculus were collected according to their presence or absence in at least one sextant of the mouth, after using a ball pointed dental probe (WHO model). For each tooth in each sextant, six points were examined and the worst situation identified. When analyzing the data, the categories of these variables were “yes” or “no”. Another explanatory variable in this group was reporting discomfort when brushing, obtained through the following question in the questionnaire: “In the last six months, have your teeth caused you discomfort when brushing?”, also categorized as “yes” or “no”.

Second level explanatory variables included contextual factors related to the municipalities, in other words, characteristics of the children’s physical and social environment which may influence dental caries. Data for each municipality participating in the SBBrasil were obtained from the IBGE 2010 census, providing information on median household income and the percentage of residences linked to the water supply. The National Survey of Basic Sanitation carried out by the IBGE in 2008, ^bbInstituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (BR). Coordenação de População e Indicadores Sociais. Pesquisa Nacional de Saneamento Básico 2008. Rio de Janeiro; 2010. provided information on fluoridation (yes or no) of the public water supply in each municipality.

In the 2010 SBBrasil Project, two pilot tests were carried out in Florianópolis, SC, and João Pessoa, PB, in order to verify the planned coherence, field logistics and feasibility of the study’s instruments and methodology.

Before the data were collected, instructors trained and instructed around 570 dentists and 570 recording clerks. The training workshops took place in various cities all over the country, lasted 32 hours and included theory and practice. In order to standardize the team, the consensus technique was used. ⁸8 . Frias AC, Antunes JLF, Narvai PC. Precisão e validade de levantamentos epidemiológicos em saúde bucal: cárie dentária na Cidade de São Paulo, 2002. Rev Bras Epidemiol . 2004;7(2):144-54. DOI: 10.1590/S1415-790X2004000200004
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1415-790X200400... The model proposed by the WHO ²⁴24 . World Health Organization. Calibration of examiners for oral health epidemiological surveys. Geneva; 1993. was used as the reference, with only those dentists who obtained a kappa statistic of 0.65 or above for inter-observer concordance allowed to participate as examiners in the survey.

The field work teams were made up of an examiner (dentist) and a recording clerk, both working for the public health care services in the participating municipalities. The dental exams were carried out within the home, using natural light, a dental mirror and a ball point dental probe. ^aaMinistério da Saúde (BR). Secretaria de Atenção à Saúde. Departamento de Atenção Básica. Coordenação Nacional de Saúde Bucal. Projeto SB Brasil 2010: condições de saúde bucal da população brasileira em 2010. Resultados principais. Brasília (DF); 2011. Interviews with the head of the household were also carried out. The data gathering tool allowed demographic and socioeconomic information to be collected, as well as other data related to oral health (reported oral morbidities, use of dental services, self-perception and impact).

First, descriptive statistics of dental caries indices and its spatial distribution in the municipalities (state capitals and interior) was carried out. Associations between the prevalence of dental caries and each of the independent variables was verified using the Rao-Scott test. Subsequently, Poisson multiple regression analysis was carried out, using the prevalence ratio as the measure of association. Mixed multilevel analysis models were estimated, ²²22 . Snijders TAB, Bosker RJ. Multilevel analysis. An introduction to basic and advanced multilevel modelling. London: SAGE Publication; 1999. considering the children as the first level of analysis and the selected towns as the second. The statistical analyses were carried out using the STATA ^© 12.0, 2011 software, considering the complex sampling cluster design and sampling weights.

The SBBrasil 2010 Project followed the requirements of the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Conselho Nacional de Ética em Pesquisa , record no. 15,498, 7 ^th January 2010.

RESULTS

A total of 81 children (1.1%) were not examined for dental caries for a variety of reasons (the examination was not authorized or not permitted, no resident was found at home or the presence of at least five teeth with orthodontic bands) and were therefore considered to be sample loss. The final sample was of 7,247 individuals.

The prevalence of the disease was estimated to be 56.0% (95%CI 51.1%;61.0%), with 22.2% (95%CI 18.1%;26.2%) of the children severely affected by dental caries (four or more teeth affected). Even when considering the 44.0% of caries-free children, the mean number of teeth which were decayed, filled or missing was higher than two per person: DMFT index = 2.04 (95%CI 1.76;2.31) (Table 1).

Inequalities in the geographic distribution of the disease were found; in the North and Northeast, dental caries indices were higher for both the state capitals and towns in the interior. The state capitals with the lowest DMFT values were Florianópolis, Salvador, Aracaju and Brasília. The state capitals with the worst indicators were Porto Velho, Boa Vista, Rio Branco and São Luís. The DMFT in the interior towns of the Northeast (3.97) ranked more than double the index in the Southeast (1.74) ( Figure , Table 1 ).

The association between the prevalence of dental caries (DMFT ≥ 1) and socioeconomic conditions, as assessed by household income, was identified. The prevalence of dental caries was significantly higher in black, brown and yellow skinned children than in white children. However, this association lost its significance when adjusted for the other factors in the multivariate analysis, suggesting that the variation in prevalence of dental caries among racial strata reflects differences in socioeconomic conditions between these groups ( Tables 2 and 3 ).

The prevalence of dental caries (DMFT ≥ 1) was also significantly higher among children with dental calculus or bleeding gums on probing. Considering adjustment for the other variables, included in the multivariate analysis, children who complained of discomfort when brushing had a higher prevalence of dental caries 18% (8% to 29%) higher than their peers without this condition ( Tables 2 and 3 ).

The same individual and household characteristics associated with the prevalence of dental caries were also recognized as being statistically associated the prevalence of severe cases of dental caries (four or more teeth) ( Tables 2 and 4 ).

All of the contextual factors included in the study were associated with the prevalence of dental caries. The proportion of children affected by the disease was significantly higher in towns which did not add fluoride to the public water supply (p < 0.001) and in those with the lowest median incomes (p < 0.001). These associations remained statistically significant in the multivariate analysis ( Tables 2 and 3 ).

The factors associated with the prevalence of dental caries were also recognized as being significantly associated with the prevalence of severe attacks of dental caries (four or more teeth affected) at the contextual level of analysis (Table 2 and 4).

DISCUSSION

This study shows the continuing trend for declining levels of dental caries in Brazilian children and that this decline was unequal across the population, with a higher burden of the disease affecting deprived children.

When comparing these results with those of the national epidemiological survey carried out in 2003, the values described in this study indicate a continuing decline in 12-year-olds affected by dental caries, observed in the 1990s. In 2003, the DMFT index was 2.78; the prevalence (CPO ≥ 1) was 68.9%; and the prevalence of DMFT ≥ 4 was 33.5%.

Despite the overall decline in the prevalence of dental caries, significant inequalities were observed in levels of the disease. The worst indicators of the disease were observed in children from families on the lowest levels of income and those who lived in municipalities with the worst economic indicators and poor access to fluoridated water. The socioeconomic and geographic inequalities in dental caries remain since the first national survey in 1986, when a higher prevalence of the disease was also observed in those regions of Brazil which were more economically disadvantaged. ¹³13 . Narvai PC, Frazão P, Roncalli AG, Antunes JLF. Cárie dentária no Brasil: declínio, polarização, iniqüidade e exclusão social. Rev Panam Salud Publica . 2006;19(6):385-93. DOI: 10.1590/S1020-49892006000600004
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1020-4989200600...

Children with black and brown skin color had a higher prevalence of dental caries and of a severe attack of dental caries than white children. This finding indicates that previously reported inequalities between racial strata and dental caries remain. ¹1 . Antunes JL, Pegoretti T, Andrade FP, Junqueira SR, Frazão P, Narvai PC. Ethnic disparities in the prevalence of dental caries and restorative dental treatment in Brazilian children. Int Dent J . 2003;53(1):7-12. DOI: 10.1111/j.1875-595X.2003.tb00649.x
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1875-595X.2003... ^{, 3}3 . Antunes JLF, Peres MA, Mello TRC, Waldman EA. Multilevel assessment of determinants of dental caries experience in Brazil. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol . 2006;34(2):146-52. DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0528.2006.00274.x
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0528.2006... However, the association between skin color and dental caries indices lost its significance in the multivariate analysis, which suggests that this difference is largely due to the poorer socio-economic conditions of black and brown children in the Brazilian population.

The poorer conditions of black and brown children with regards to dental caries prevalence also needs to be assessed, studying the components of the DMFT index, something not done in this study. Specifically dealing with the prevalence of untreated dental caries in Brazilian adolescents, Bastos et al ⁴4 . Bastos JL, Antunes JLF, Frias AC, Souza MLR, Peres KG, Peres MA. Cor/raça e desigualdades em saúde bucal entre adolescentes brasileiros. Rev Bras Epidemiol . 2009;12(3):313-24. DOI: 10.1590/S1415-790X2009000300003
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1415-790X200900... (2009) reported higher levels of the disease in groups with black and brown skin compared with those with white skin.

This study recorded and quantified the association between the prevalence of dental caries in children and indicators of access to fluoridated water in the municipality. This observation has a positive aspect, as it shows the need to continue and expand this strategy in the present. ¹¹11 . Ministério da Saúde (BR). Secretaria de Atenção à Saúde. Departamento de Atenção Básica. Guia de recomendações para o uso de fluoretos no Brasil. Brasília (DF); 2009. (Série A. Normas e Manuais Técnicos). ^{, 14}14 . Parnell C, Whelton H, O’Mullane D. Water fluoridation. Eur Arch Paediatr Dent . 2009;10(3):141-8. DOI: 10.1007/BF03262675
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03262675... However, this association also highlights the difficulty in overcoming health care inequalities which are both unfair and avoidable. ¹⁶16 . Peres MA, Antunes JLF, Peres KG. Is water fluoridation effective in reducing inequalities in dental caries distribution in developing countries? Recent findings from Brazil. Soz Praventivmed . 2006;51(5):302-10. DOI: 10.1007/s00038-006-5057-y
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-006-5057-... Although fluoridating the water supply has been compulsory in Brazil since the 1970s, in 2008 39.4% of Brazilian municipalities did not provide this, the majority of them being situated in the poorest areas of the country. ^bbInstituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (BR). Coordenação de População e Indicadores Sociais. Pesquisa Nacional de Saneamento Básico 2008. Rio de Janeiro; 2010.

Access to fluoridated water is clearly influenced by socioeconomic conditions, as it is the poorest municipalities which have the most difficulty in implementing this measure. In the Southeast, only 16.1% of municipalities did not fluoridate tap water; in the South this percentage was even smaller: 4.9%. In the other regions, however, the percentages are much higher: North - 81.0%, Northeast - 68.8% and Central-West - 54.9%. ^bbInstituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (BR). Coordenação de População e Indicadores Sociais. Pesquisa Nacional de Saneamento Básico 2008. Rio de Janeiro; 2010. As these regions are also those which have the lowest household incomes and coverage of the public water supply, the multivariate analysis attenuated the association found in the non-adjusted analysis.

In general, the contextual variables (principally fluoridated water) were as important as individual variables, because all of these, with the exception of skin color, continued to be significantly associated with the prevalence of dental caries in the multi-level analysis. However, when the group of children who suffered from severe cases of dental caries (DMFT ≥ 4) were evaluated, the strength of the association increased for oral health problems (presence of dental calculus and bleeding gums) and reporting discomfort when brushing. This observation suggests that the quality of dental hygiene may reduce the severity of dental caries, although the scientific evidence on the effectiveness of hygiene as a way of preventing this disease is considered weak. ²³23 . Sutcliffe P. Oral cleanliness and dental caries. In: Murray JJ, editor. The prevention of oral disease. 3. ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1996. p. 68-77. Other aspects which may influence this association, such as the presence of fluoride in toothpaste and the frequency and quality of brushing should also be considered. ⁷7 . Creeth JE, Gallagher A, Sowinski J, Bowman J, Barrett K, Lowe S, et al. The effect of brushing time and dentifrice on dental plaque removal in vivo. J Dent Hyg . 2009;83(3):111-6. ^{, 10}10 . Maserejian NN, Trachtenberg F, Link C, Tavares M. Underutilization of dental care when it is freely available: a prospective study of the New England Children’s Amalgam Trial. J Public Health Dent . 2008;68(3):39-45. DOI: 10.1111/j.1752-7325.2007.00074.x
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-7325.2007... As the cause-effect relationship could not be verified in this study, reverse causality can still be considered, in other words, more severe dental caries may be an exposure factor of the other oral health problems (bleeding gums and discomfort when brushing).

The cross-sectional design of this study is recognized as a limitation. Therefore, the highlighted associations are merely references in the discussion of explanatory hypotheses. Even so, the data from this study are deemed to be the best information available for planning oral health care at a national level. Another limitation of this study was the lack of information on the mothers’ or guardians’ level of schooling in the database, as these variables are recognized as important in analyzing the distribution of dental caries in childhood. The lack of official data on the HDI of Brazilian municipalities in 2010, a database of recognized importance in analyzing the distribution of dental caries, is also a limitation of this study as it is not possible to analytically explore these contextual factors of oral health problems.

The results found are important in consolidating knowledge of the distribution of dental caries, its decreasing trend and the inequalities which still affect the country. It is also important to assess the influence of individual and contextual factors in the prevalence of the disease. The existing inequalities, characterized by the higher prevalence of dental caries in the poorer groups of the population are persistent and reflect marked inequalities in Brazilian society and their implications for the population’s health.

Thus, the need for interventions which could reduce existing inequalities between and within countries is underlined, as proposed by the Commission on Social Determinants of Health. ⁶6 . World Health Organization. Commission on Social Determinants of Health. Closing the gap in a generation: health equity through action on the social determinants of health. Geneva; 2008[citado 2012 fev 04]. Disponível em: http://www.who.int/social_determinants/thecommission/finalreport/en/index.html
http://www.who.int/social_determinants/t... The results of this study also show that oral health care policies which only focus on changing behavior are ineffective strategies in reducing inequalities in oral health care, especially with regards to the distribution of dental caries in children. Thus, in addition to activities aimed at structural determinants of the health-disease process, ²¹21 . Sheiham A, Alexander D, Cohen L, Marinho V, Moysés S, Petersen PE, et al. Global oral health inequalities: task group--implementation and delivery of oral health strategies. Adv Dent Res . 2011;23(2):259-67. DOI: 10.1177/0022034511402084
https://doi.org/10.1177/0022034511402084... universal access to fluoridated drinking water should continue to be one of the priorities of national oral health care strategies.

References

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