Abstract

Several studies on the fight against COVID-19 have been developed in various countries. However, there are few studies that compare cases corresponding to the first wave of the epidemic in a close period and with different responses and outcomes. Therefore, an integrative review was conducted to analyze the experiences of Italy and Vietnam in dealing with the COVID-19 pandemic during the first wave of the disease, seeking to identify the contributions of the health and surveillance systems as well as the specificities of the measures adopted in each country. Common databases were used and the empirical material related to publications was supplemented with documents from the official websites of both countries. The results of this study show that Vietnam and Italy adopted different strategies to deal with COVID-19, containment and mitigation, respectively, with specific measures that made a difference in the number of cases and deaths in each country.

Key words:
Health System; COVID-19; Health surveillance

Introduction

The emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic¹1 Darsie C, Hillesheim B, Weber DL. O discurso de controle de doenças da Organização Mundial da Saúde e a produção de espacialidades nacionais. Interface (Botucatu) 2021; 25:e200587. posed global challenges for countries and their health systems³3 Rossi TRA, Soares CLM, Silva GA, Paim JS, Vieira-Da-Silva LM. The response by South Korea to the COVID-19 pandemic: lessons learned and recommendations for policymakers. Cad Saude Publica 2022; 38(1):e00118621.. Studies analyzing the response of countries point to mixed results in terms of epidemic management³3 Rossi TRA, Soares CLM, Silva GA, Paim JS, Vieira-Da-Silva LM. The response by South Korea to the COVID-19 pandemic: lessons learned and recommendations for policymakers. Cad Saude Publica 2022; 38(1):e00118621., health service preparedness⁴4 Chen C-C, Tseng C-Y, Choi W-M, Lee Y-C, Su T-H, Hsieh C-Y, Chang C-M, Weng S-L, Liu P-H, Tai Y-L, Lin C-Y. Taiwan government-guided strategies contributed to combating and controlling COVID-19 pandemic. Front Public Health 2020; 8:547423., hospital care organization⁵5 Santos PPGV, Oliveira RAD, Albuquerque MV. Desigualdades da oferta hospitalar no contexto da pandemia da Covid-19 no Brasil: uma revisão integrativa. Saude Debate 2022; 46(Esp. 1):322-337., the use of primary health care⁶6 Sarti TD, Lazarini WS, Fontenelle LF, Almeida APSC. Qual o papel da Atenção Primária à Saúde diante da pandemia provocada pela COVID-19? Epidemiol Serv Saude 2020; 29(2):e2020166., and learning from previous epidemics³3 Rossi TRA, Soares CLM, Silva GA, Paim JS, Vieira-Da-Silva LM. The response by South Korea to the COVID-19 pandemic: lessons learned and recommendations for policymakers. Cad Saude Publica 2022; 38(1):e00118621..

The literature on responses to COVID-19 in the first phase of the pandemic shows successful performance by Vietnam⁷7 Ha BTT, Quang LN, Mirzoev T, Tai NT, Thai PQ, Dinh PC. Combating the COVID-19 epidemic: experiences from Vietnam. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2020; 17(9):3125.

8 Nguyen HTT, Nguyen TT, Dam VAT, Nguyen LH, Vu GT, Nguyen HLT, Nguyen HT, Le HT. COVID-19 Employment crisis in vietnam: global issue, national solutions. Front Public Health 2020; 8:590074.^-99 Duong DM, Le VT, Ha BTT. Controlling the COVID-19 pandemic in Vietnam: lessons from a limited resource country. Asia Pac J Public Health 2020; 32(4):161-162., which, together with South Korea³3 Rossi TRA, Soares CLM, Silva GA, Paim JS, Vieira-Da-Silva LM. The response by South Korea to the COVID-19 pandemic: lessons learned and recommendations for policymakers. Cad Saude Publica 2022; 38(1):e00118621., had a lower number of cases and deaths. On the other hand, they point to Italy as an unsuccessful case¹⁰10 Anastassopoulou C, Siettos C, Russo L, Vrioni G, Tsakris A. Lessons from the devastating impact of the first COVID-19 wave in Italy. Pathog Glob Health 2021; 115(4):211-212..

A study analyzing the initial responses to COVID-19 among Western and East Asian countries notes that the priority given in the health systems of many Western countries to hospital management of chronic non-communicable diseases, without strengthening their prevention and control capacities and their territorial surveillance systems, would be a possible explanation for the country’s success or failure¹¹11 Linh DP, Tam HT. How a collectivistic society won the first battle against COVID-19: Vietnam and their "weapons". Inter-Asia Cult Stud 2020; 21(4):506-520.. It is also known that the performance of a robust health surveillance system, such as that of South Korea, was fundamental to the definition of strategic actions in line with the epidemiological situation³3 Rossi TRA, Soares CLM, Silva GA, Paim JS, Vieira-Da-Silva LM. The response by South Korea to the COVID-19 pandemic: lessons learned and recommendations for policymakers. Cad Saude Publica 2022; 38(1):e00118621..

Investigating specific factors and possible contributions of health and surveillance systems in the cases of Vietnam and Italy during the first wave of the pandemic¹²12 Shokoohi M, Osooli M, Stranges S. COVID-19 Pandemic: what can the West learn from the East? Int J Health Policy Manag 2020; 9(10):436-438., experienced simultaneously, can indicate aspects related to the success or failure of these experiences and signal pathways for future epidemics, considering that both countries have different situations in later waves¹²12 Shokoohi M, Osooli M, Stranges S. COVID-19 Pandemic: what can the West learn from the East? Int J Health Policy Manag 2020; 9(10):436-438..

This paper aims to analyze the experiences of Italy and Vietnam in coping with the COVID-19 pandemic during the first wave of the disease, seeking to understand the specificities of the measures adopted in each country that led to very different outcomes and to elucidate the contributions of the health and surveillance systems.

Methodology

An integrative review was developed, adapted from the proposal of Whittemore and Knafl¹³13 Whittemore R, Knafl K. The integrative review: updated methodology. J Adv Nurs 2005; 52(2):546-553., taking as its object the response of Vietnam and Italy to the COVID-19 pandemic, as cases of success and failure, respectively, in the first wave of the pandemic. A search was conducted until July 31, 2021 to identify articles that addressed the response of the health and surveillance systems or the evolution of the epidemic in each country.

The search was performed using the Capes Journal Portal (https://www.periodicos.capes.gov.br/), which provided access to the PubMed Central (PMC), Science Direct, Scopus and Web of Science databases. Combined descriptors associated with the terms “COVID-19” and “country names” (Table 1) in titles, abstracts and keywords were used. Manuscripts selected through manual searches that appeared in the references of the articles were also included, where appropriate, as well as documents available in the COVID-19 surveillance databases of the two countries, available at: http://www.salute.gov.it/portale/nuovocoronavirus/homeNuovoCoronavirus.jsp. for Italy and https://moh.gov.vn/vi_VN. for Vietnam. In the case of Italy, the report of the European Observatory - Observatory on Health System and Policies - on the Italian health system (HIT) was also included. For both countries, data were drawn from Our World in Data (https://ourworldindata.org/) and the OECD website (https://www.oecd.org/).

A total of 93 and 830 articles were identified for Vietnam and Italy, respectively, which were imported into the Mendeley software. After excluding duplicate articles, the database was processed in the Intelligent Systematic Review (Rayyan) review management software, and the final selection of articles was carried out by two researchers. After this process, 26 articles from Vietnam and 71 from Italy were selected for full reading (Figure 1). After the selection, extracted data were recorded in matrices containing the year, title of the article, authors, journals and main findings regarding the measures adopted in each country.

The analysis considered: (i) the characteristics of the country, state/government, and health system; (ii) the measures adopted by the two countries; and (iii) the contributions of the respective health and surveillance systems.

Results

Characteristics of the countries, states, governments and their health care systems

The Socialist Republic of Vietnam, unified by an armed conflict in 1975, was reformed in 1988, introducing market liberalization and allowing private property in the country, regulated by the State¹⁴14 Osewe PL. Pandemic preparedness and response strategies: COVID-19 lessons from the Republic of Korea, Thailand, and Vietnam [Internet]. 2021. [cited 2023 jan 31]. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.22617/TCS210037
http://dx.doi.org/10.22617/TCS210037... . Currently, the country still has high levels of social inequality¹⁵15 Cộng Hòa Xã Hội Chủ Nghĩa Việt Nam [República Socialista do Vietnã]. Niên giám thống kê y tế 2018 [Anuário estatístico médico 2018]. Vietnam Bộ y Tế [Ministério da Saúde do Vietnã]. 2018. [acessado 2023 fev 1]. Disponível em: https://moh.gov.vn/documents/176127/0/NGTK+2018+final_2018.pdf/29980c9e-d21d-41dc-889a-fb0e005c2ce9
https://moh.gov.vn/documents/176127/0/NG... and a complex health situation, although social indicators have improved in recent decades¹⁴14 Osewe PL. Pandemic preparedness and response strategies: COVID-19 lessons from the Republic of Korea, Thailand, and Vietnam [Internet]. 2021. [cited 2023 jan 31]. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.22617/TCS210037
http://dx.doi.org/10.22617/TCS210037... .

The country has a tripartite power structure, consisting of the party, the people and the state, and is governed by a single party, the Party of the Socialist Republic. The administrative structure is composed of four levels: national, provincial, district and commune, the latter being governed by an elected People’s Council¹⁴14 Osewe PL. Pandemic preparedness and response strategies: COVID-19 lessons from the Republic of Korea, Thailand, and Vietnam [Internet]. 2021. [cited 2023 jan 31]. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.22617/TCS210037
http://dx.doi.org/10.22617/TCS210037... . The health system is managed according that this structure (central, provincial, district and commune). The Ministry of Health is responsible for the National Health Policy, which guides the actions of the other administrative regions.

There is universal public insurance¹⁴14 Osewe PL. Pandemic preparedness and response strategies: COVID-19 lessons from the Republic of Korea, Thailand, and Vietnam [Internet]. 2021. [cited 2023 jan 31]. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.22617/TCS210037
http://dx.doi.org/10.22617/TCS210037... covering 89.2% of the population¹⁵15 Cộng Hòa Xã Hội Chủ Nghĩa Việt Nam [República Socialista do Vietnã]. Niên giám thống kê y tế 2018 [Anuário estatístico médico 2018]. Vietnam Bộ y Tế [Ministério da Saúde do Vietnã]. 2018. [acessado 2023 fev 1]. Disponível em: https://moh.gov.vn/documents/176127/0/NGTK+2018+final_2018.pdf/29980c9e-d21d-41dc-889a-fb0e005c2ce9
https://moh.gov.vn/documents/176127/0/NG... . The private sector is present in the provision of services, especially at the specialized outpatient and hospital level, under state regulation, although the provision of care is mostly public. Community health centers (CHS) provide primary care and refer users to inter-community clinics and hospitals when necessary¹⁴14 Osewe PL. Pandemic preparedness and response strategies: COVID-19 lessons from the Republic of Korea, Thailand, and Vietnam [Internet]. 2021. [cited 2023 jan 31]. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.22617/TCS210037
http://dx.doi.org/10.22617/TCS210037... ^,1616 Nguyen HV, Hoang MV, Dao ATM, Nguyen HL, Nguyen TV, Nguyen PT, Khuong LQ, Le PM, Gilmour S. An adaptive model of health system organization and responses helped Vietnam to successfully halt the Covid-19 pandemic: What lessons can be learned from a resource-constrained country. Int J Health Plann Manage 2020; 35(5):988-992.. The hospital structure has national, district and provincial hospitals, with roles defined at each level and the national hospitals being responsible for training the workforce at the other levels¹⁴14 Osewe PL. Pandemic preparedness and response strategies: COVID-19 lessons from the Republic of Korea, Thailand, and Vietnam [Internet]. 2021. [cited 2023 jan 31]. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.22617/TCS210037
http://dx.doi.org/10.22617/TCS210037... . This workforce includes assistant professionals who have completed half of their professional training and are authorized to work in primary care, such as doctors and nurses¹⁴14 Osewe PL. Pandemic preparedness and response strategies: COVID-19 lessons from the Republic of Korea, Thailand, and Vietnam [Internet]. 2021. [cited 2023 jan 31]. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.22617/TCS210037
http://dx.doi.org/10.22617/TCS210037...

15 Cộng Hòa Xã Hội Chủ Nghĩa Việt Nam [República Socialista do Vietnã]. Niên giám thống kê y tế 2018 [Anuário estatístico médico 2018]. Vietnam Bộ y Tế [Ministério da Saúde do Vietnã]. 2018. [acessado 2023 fev 1]. Disponível em: https://moh.gov.vn/documents/176127/0/NGTK+2018+final_2018.pdf/29980c9e-d21d-41dc-889a-fb0e005c2ce9
https://moh.gov.vn/documents/176127/0/NG... ^-1616 Nguyen HV, Hoang MV, Dao ATM, Nguyen HL, Nguyen TV, Nguyen PT, Khuong LQ, Le PM, Gilmour S. An adaptive model of health system organization and responses helped Vietnam to successfully halt the Covid-19 pandemic: What lessons can be learned from a resource-constrained country. Int J Health Plann Manage 2020; 35(5):988-992..

A recent reform, called the Adaptive Model, implemented in 2015, structured health units from the district to the provincial level into Centers for Disease Control (CDC)¹⁶16 Nguyen HV, Hoang MV, Dao ATM, Nguyen HL, Nguyen TV, Nguyen PT, Khuong LQ, Le PM, Gilmour S. An adaptive model of health system organization and responses helped Vietnam to successfully halt the Covid-19 pandemic: What lessons can be learned from a resource-constrained country. Int J Health Plann Manage 2020; 35(5):988-992., with the aim of implementing a patient-centered model of care that articulates health care and surveillance. As a result, it promoted improvements in health facilities, patients’ freedom to choose services, and the organization of hospital care.

The General Department of Preventive Medicine (GDPM), an agency of the MoH, formulates public health policy and the strategic direction of related activities, including surveillance¹⁷17 Willoughby E. Unified, preventive, low-cost government response to COVID-19 in Vietnam. In: Greer SL, King EJ, Fonseca EM, Peralta-Santos A, organizadores. Coronavirus politics: the comparative politics and policy of COVID-19. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press; 2021.. In 2013, the National Public Health Emergency Operation Center (PHEOC), linked to the GDPM, was established to manage risk assessment and response to emergency threats. The country has a Regional Public Health Institute in the four health administrative regions, which is responsible for technical guidance and oversight of disease and outbreak surveillance and response in the region. Provincial disease control centers lead activities in the provinces and district centers at the district level. At the commune level, community centers provide basic services such as family planning, immunization and health education.

Italy, in turn, is a capitalist country with a social protection system anchored in social security, with a universal health care system funded through taxes¹⁸18 Ferre F, Belvis AG, Valerio L, Longhi S, Lazzari A, Fattore G, Ricciardi W, Maresso A. Italy: health system review. Health Syst Transit 2014; 16(4):1-168. Disponível em: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/141626
https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/1... . The country experienced an expansion of the welfare state between the 1980s and 1990s, and from then on it has developed a series of reforms, including the health system, which has resulted in a reduction of infrastructure, staff and the number of facilities, clinical beds and, above all, ICUs¹⁸18 Ferre F, Belvis AG, Valerio L, Longhi S, Lazzari A, Fattore G, Ricciardi W, Maresso A. Italy: health system review. Health Syst Transit 2014; 16(4):1-168. Disponível em: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/141626
https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/1... ^,1919 Buzelli ML, Boyce T. The privatization of the Italian National Health System and its impact on health emergency preparedness and response: the COVID-19 case. Int J Health Serv 2021; 51(4):501-508..

The Servizio Sanitario Nazionale (SSN) is organized through 20 health regions, in a decentralized and hierarchical system, with well-defined inter-federative relationships, giving relative autonomy to the health regions, both in the definition of health policy priorities and in the organization of the regional and local health systems. The literature points to disparities in the configuration of services in regional health systems, with the best structure located in the north¹⁹19 Buzelli ML, Boyce T. The privatization of the Italian National Health System and its impact on health emergency preparedness and response: the COVID-19 case. Int J Health Serv 2021; 51(4):501-508.^,2020 Pecoraro F, Luzi D, Clemente F. Analysis of the different approaches adopted in the Italian regions to care for patients affected by COVID-19. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2021; 18(3):848..

In the health regions, there are local health systems - Aziende Sanitarie Locali (ASL) - managed by local health authorities defined on a territorial basis and aimed at developing community-based public health actions. They focus on primary health care (PHC) for the direct provision of health actions and services, with the general practitioner (GP) as the coordinator of care in PHC. It should be emphasized that the provision of services occurs through a mix of public and private providers, with differences in the form of contracting and management of private providers¹⁸18 Ferre F, Belvis AG, Valerio L, Longhi S, Lazzari A, Fattore G, Ricciardi W, Maresso A. Italy: health system review. Health Syst Transit 2014; 16(4):1-168. Disponível em: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/141626
https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/1... .

The National Center for Disease Prevention and Control, established in 2004, conducts surveillance, prevention, and health emergency response actions, supports regional teams, and maintains relationships with international epidemiology and public health networks. This center is responsible for risk assessment and management related to communicable diseases and bioterrorism. In the ASL, there are Prevention Departments, which are operational units responsible for public health actions²¹21 Mauro M, Giancotti M. Italian responses to the COVID-19 emergency: overthrowing 30 years of health reforms? Health Policy 2021; 125(4):548-552.. Table 2 summarizes information on the two cases investigated.

Response to the pandemic

Vietnam

The first wave of the epidemic in Vietnam was characterized by a low number of cases (268 cases, including 100 by community transmission) and no recorded deaths from the disease²²22 Nguyen T-P, Wong ZSY, Wang L, Thanh TT, Nguyen HV, Gilmour S. Rapid impact assessments of COVID-19 control measures against the Delta variant and short-term projections of new confirmed cases in Vietnam. J Glob Health 2021;11:03118., with only isolated clusters and control of the spread of the disease. Several factors contributed to the success of this response, including the adoption of the pandemic containment strategy, a low-cost model, and a multisectoral, intersectoral, and planned approach¹⁶16 Nguyen HV, Hoang MV, Dao ATM, Nguyen HL, Nguyen TV, Nguyen PT, Khuong LQ, Le PM, Gilmour S. An adaptive model of health system organization and responses helped Vietnam to successfully halt the Covid-19 pandemic: What lessons can be learned from a resource-constrained country. Int J Health Plann Manage 2020; 35(5):988-992.^,2222 Nguyen T-P, Wong ZSY, Wang L, Thanh TT, Nguyen HV, Gilmour S. Rapid impact assessments of COVID-19 control measures against the Delta variant and short-term projections of new confirmed cases in Vietnam. J Glob Health 2021;11:03118.^,2323 Nguyen HB, Nguyen THM, Tran TTT, Vo THN, Tran VH, Do TNP, Troung QB, Nguyen TH, Ly LK. Knowledge, attitudes, practices, and related factors towards COVID-19 prevention among patients at University Medical Center Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Risk Manag Healthc Policy 2021; 14:2119-2132..

Before the first case appeared, the Vietnamese government set up a Prevention and Control Working Group consisting of 23 ministries, committees, the press, and radio and television representatives⁷7 Ha BTT, Quang LN, Mirzoev T, Tai NT, Thai PQ, Dinh PC. Combating the COVID-19 epidemic: experiences from Vietnam. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2020; 17(9):3125. and coordinated by the Deputy Prime Minister. The government acted in the early stages of the pandemic by implementing extensive public health measures⁷7 Ha BTT, Quang LN, Mirzoev T, Tai NT, Thai PQ, Dinh PC. Combating the COVID-19 epidemic: experiences from Vietnam. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2020; 17(9):3125.^,99 Duong DM, Le VT, Ha BTT. Controlling the COVID-19 pandemic in Vietnam: lessons from a limited resource country. Asia Pac J Public Health 2020; 32(4):161-162., and developing a Master Plan for pandemic response to address the possibility of 30,000 cases in a worst-case scenario ¹⁶. The Ministry of Health mobilized the PHEOC to prepare for the pandemic and ensure the implementation of the plan¹⁷17 Willoughby E. Unified, preventive, low-cost government response to COVID-19 in Vietnam. In: Greer SL, King EJ, Fonseca EM, Peralta-Santos A, organizadores. Coronavirus politics: the comparative politics and policy of COVID-19. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press; 2021..

A zero-new-case-approach was adopted, consisting of a clear policy of risk communication through timely, accurate and transparent communication involving the whole of society through common and official channels; isolation of cases with intensive contact tracing up to the third level, massive quarantine and confinement; centralized case management, early closure and border controls with strict implementation of quarantine protocols for foreigners, maintaining physical distance and with a strong role for civil society⁷7 Ha BTT, Quang LN, Mirzoev T, Tai NT, Thai PQ, Dinh PC. Combating the COVID-19 epidemic: experiences from Vietnam. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2020; 17(9):3125.^,99 Duong DM, Le VT, Ha BTT. Controlling the COVID-19 pandemic in Vietnam: lessons from a limited resource country. Asia Pac J Public Health 2020; 32(4):161-162.. Vietnam also adopted the systematic use of technologies to track virus carriers, with containment measures associated with the emergence of cases in each location.

Official communication regarding the government’s position was the responsibility of the Prime Minister and the Minister of Health, adopting the slogan “Fighting the pandemic like fighting the aggressors”⁷7 Ha BTT, Quang LN, Mirzoev T, Tai NT, Thai PQ, Dinh PC. Combating the COVID-19 epidemic: experiences from Vietnam. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2020; 17(9):3125.^,1717 Willoughby E. Unified, preventive, low-cost government response to COVID-19 in Vietnam. In: Greer SL, King EJ, Fonseca EM, Peralta-Santos A, organizadores. Coronavirus politics: the comparative politics and policy of COVID-19. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press; 2021. and raising the collective spirit in the country. There were strong government actions to combat fake news and misinformation about COVID-19¹¹11 Linh DP, Tam HT. How a collectivistic society won the first battle against COVID-19: Vietnam and their "weapons". Inter-Asia Cult Stud 2020; 21(4):506-520., supported by scientific literature, with the establishment of punishments for offenders, under social condemnation by the population itself¹¹11 Linh DP, Tam HT. How a collectivistic society won the first battle against COVID-19: Vietnam and their "weapons". Inter-Asia Cult Stud 2020; 21(4):506-520.. The population, regardless of socio-economic status, including soldiers, businesspeople, academics and students, supported health professionals in the fight against COVID-19²²22 Nguyen T-P, Wong ZSY, Wang L, Thanh TT, Nguyen HV, Gilmour S. Rapid impact assessments of COVID-19 control measures against the Delta variant and short-term projections of new confirmed cases in Vietnam. J Glob Health 2021;11:03118..

The expansion of the physical infrastructure was achieved by adapting military buildings, university facilities, and dormitories to serve as quarantine areas and temporary hospitals¹⁷17 Willoughby E. Unified, preventive, low-cost government response to COVID-19 in Vietnam. In: Greer SL, King EJ, Fonseca EM, Peralta-Santos A, organizadores. Coronavirus politics: the comparative politics and policy of COVID-19. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press; 2021.^,2424 Nguyen HV, Debattista J, Pham MD, Dao ATM, Gilmour S, Nguyen HL, Nguyen TV, Le PM, Nguyen PT, Tran ATN, Vu KD, Dinh ST, Hoang MV. Vietnam's healthcare system decentralization: how well does it respond to global health crises such as COVID-19 pandemic? Asia Pac J Health Manag 2021; 16(1):i619..

The establishment of CDCs, with the integration of health facilities at district and provincial levels, not only created more integrated and multifunctional facilities, but also improved the system to meet local needs by creating a wider network of hospitals capable of treating COVID-19 patients²⁵25 La V-P, Pham T-H, Ho M-T, Nguyen M-H, Nguyen K-LP, Vuong T-T, Nguyen H-KT, Tran T, Khuc Q, Ho M-T, Vuong Q-H. Policy response, social media and science journalism for the sustainability of the Public Health System amid the COVID-19 outbreak: the Vietnam lessons. Sustainability 2020; 12(7):2931., allowing for better coordination and a faster adaptive response¹⁶16 Nguyen HV, Hoang MV, Dao ATM, Nguyen HL, Nguyen TV, Nguyen PT, Khuong LQ, Le PM, Gilmour S. An adaptive model of health system organization and responses helped Vietnam to successfully halt the Covid-19 pandemic: What lessons can be learned from a resource-constrained country. Int J Health Plann Manage 2020; 35(5):988-992..

The country clearly defined the roles of the facilities and the management structure. The Ministry of Health was responsible for providing support, including visits to health units, in preparing for the fight against the pandemic, mobilizing and providing medical equipment and personal protective equipment. The national hospitals, in turn, were responsible for training the workforce on the clinical guidelines for the treatment of COVID-19, with the aim of standardizing the care provided by professionals in the national and provincial hospital services⁸8 Nguyen HTT, Nguyen TT, Dam VAT, Nguyen LH, Vu GT, Nguyen HLT, Nguyen HT, Le HT. COVID-19 Employment crisis in vietnam: global issue, national solutions. Front Public Health 2020; 8:590074.. At the local level, health centers (CHS) acted as the first point of contact for information and guidance⁷7 Ha BTT, Quang LN, Mirzoev T, Tai NT, Thai PQ, Dinh PC. Combating the COVID-19 epidemic: experiences from Vietnam. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2020; 17(9):3125.^,88 Nguyen HTT, Nguyen TT, Dam VAT, Nguyen LH, Vu GT, Nguyen HLT, Nguyen HT, Le HT. COVID-19 Employment crisis in vietnam: global issue, national solutions. Front Public Health 2020; 8:590074..

Despite Vietnam’s successful response to COVID-19, challenges common to other countries were identified, such as the lack of medical equipment (ventilators in the ICUs) and lack of PPE (masks and gowns)⁷7 Ha BTT, Quang LN, Mirzoev T, Tai NT, Thai PQ, Dinh PC. Combating the COVID-19 epidemic: experiences from Vietnam. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2020; 17(9):3125..

In the literature, there is evidence of investments in various health surveillance devices in the country, triggered by avian influenza in 2003 and previous pandemic threats such as Nipah virus and SARS¹¹11 Linh DP, Tam HT. How a collectivistic society won the first battle against COVID-19: Vietnam and their "weapons". Inter-Asia Cult Stud 2020; 21(4):506-520.^,1414 Osewe PL. Pandemic preparedness and response strategies: COVID-19 lessons from the Republic of Korea, Thailand, and Vietnam [Internet]. 2021. [cited 2023 jan 31]. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.22617/TCS210037
http://dx.doi.org/10.22617/TCS210037... . These included contributions to laboratory diagnostics, real-time electronic outbreak warning systems, virological surveillance networks focused on influenza, a training program in field epidemiology, cooperation and coordination between the animal and human health sectors, passive surveillance mechanisms with reporting, and improved risk communication.

Epidemiologic investigations were conducted by CDC health workers and local law enforcement, with systematic access to patients’ histories of social interactions and mobility patterns as surveillance work process technologies⁹9 Duong DM, Le VT, Ha BTT. Controlling the COVID-19 pandemic in Vietnam: lessons from a limited resource country. Asia Pac J Public Health 2020; 32(4):161-162.^,1111 Linh DP, Tam HT. How a collectivistic society won the first battle against COVID-19: Vietnam and their "weapons". Inter-Asia Cult Stud 2020; 21(4):506-520.. Testing capacity was strengthened over time, with provincial governments playing a key role. Local production of kits to diagnose COVID-19 infection was developed, and a health reporting system on web and mobile platforms was introduced for people to report their symptoms and suspected cases in nearby areas²⁶26 Hoang MV. Fighting against COVID-19 in Vietnam: the value of rapid antibody testing should not be confused. Health Promot Perspect 2020; 10(3):168..

Since 2005, Vietnam has followed a national plan based on the International Health Regulations²⁷27 Brasil. Decreto Legislativo nº 395, de 2009. Aprova o texto revisado do Regulamento Sanitário Internacional, acordado na 58ª Assembléia Geral da Organização Mundial de Saúde, em 23 de maio de 2005. Diário Oficial da União 2009 ;10 jul. and has made efforts to strengthen an event-based surveillance (EBS) model by implementing it in the country’s hospitals and clinics. It has several surveillance systems that aggregate data from a variety of sources, including communities and health units, allowing for territorial monitoring of the health situation²⁶26 Hoang MV. Fighting against COVID-19 in Vietnam: the value of rapid antibody testing should not be confused. Health Promot Perspect 2020; 10(3):168.. In addition, the Vietnamese government established a health declaration system for foreign travelers entering the country for case monitoring and surveillance, and activated the Hanoi Smart City app for the capital.

Italy

In contrast to Vietnam, the health system in the Lombardy region of Italy collapsed during the first wave of the epidemic¹⁰10 Anastassopoulou C, Siettos C, Russo L, Vrioni G, Tsakris A. Lessons from the devastating impact of the first COVID-19 wave in Italy. Pathog Glob Health 2021; 115(4):211-212.. Since 2006, Italy had not updated its National Plan for Public Health Emergencies, had not stockpiled any type of PPE, and had never tested horizontal and vertical coordination procedures²⁸28 Peralta-Santos A, Saboga-Nunes L, Magalhães PC. Tale of two pandemics in three countries: Portugal, Spain, and Italy. In: Greer SL, King EJ, Fonseca EM, Peralta-Santos A, organizadores. Coronavirus politics: the comparative politics and policy of COVID-19. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press; 2021..

Although there are records that the country, like Vietnam, began its preparation before the first confirmed case with the creation of a working group (WG) led by the Italian Minister of Health²⁹29 Wang D, Gee GC, Bahiru E, Yang EH, Hsu JJ. Asian-Americans and Pacific Islanders in COVID-19: emerging disparities amid discrimination. J Gen Intern Med 2020; 35(12):3685-3688., the evolution of the epidemic in the first wave of the disease was dramatic, especially in the northern region of the country³¹31 Pezzotti P, Punzo O, Bella A, Del Manso M, Urdiales AM, Fabiani M, Ciervo A, Andrianou X, Riccardo F, Stefanelli P. The challenges of the outbreak: the Italian COVID-19 integrated surveillance system. Eur J Public Health 2020; 30(Supl. 5):ckaa165.356..

The coordination of the national response was placed under the responsibility of the Head of the Civil Protection Department. On February 5, 2020, the Scientific and Technical Committee (CTS) was established, composed of experts and qualified representatives of the state administrations. The CTS and the WG aimed to support decision-making and to assist the health regions, including the financing of actions, as Italy did not have a fund for a public health emergency of national concern²¹21 Mauro M, Giancotti M. Italian responses to the COVID-19 emergency: overthrowing 30 years of health reforms? Health Policy 2021; 125(4):548-552.^,3232 Itália. Decreto-lei de 16 de março de 2020. Ulteriori misure urgenti per fronteggiare l'emergenza epidemiologica da COVID-19 [Internet]. [acessado 2023 fev 1]; Disponível em: https://www.trovanorme.salute.gov.it/norme/dettaglioAtto?id=74085&completo=false
https://www.trovanorme.salute.gov.it/nor... .

According to Wang et al.²⁹29 Wang D, Gee GC, Bahiru E, Yang EH, Hsu JJ. Asian-Americans and Pacific Islanders in COVID-19: emerging disparities amid discrimination. J Gen Intern Med 2020; 35(12):3685-3688., the response was divided into three phases: the first prioritized border control and the establishment of a national agency to coordinate the response and implement a surveillance system for COVID-19; the second divided the country into zones (red, yellow and white) for the implementation of public health measures, based on colors that defined a set of restrictive measures: red consisted of more restrictive measures and white the opposite³²32 Itália. Decreto-lei de 16 de março de 2020. Ulteriori misure urgenti per fronteggiare l'emergenza epidemiologica da COVID-19 [Internet]. [acessado 2023 fev 1]; Disponível em: https://www.trovanorme.salute.gov.it/norme/dettaglioAtto?id=74085&completo=false
https://www.trovanorme.salute.gov.it/nor... ; and the third defined flexibilization measures. In addition to these measures, the expansion of the testing policy and the implementation of the national surveillance system for laboratory-confirmed cases of SARS-CoV-2 based on the laboratory network were progressively pursued³³33 Salmaso S, Zambri F, Renzi M, Giusti A. Interrupting the chains of transmission of COVID-19 in Italy: survey among the Prevention Departments. Epidemiol Prev 2020; 44(5-6 Supl. 2):33-41.^,3434 Kurotschka PK, Serafini A, Demontis M, Serafini A, Mereu A, Moro MF, Carta MG, Ghirotto L. General practitioners' experiences during the first phase of the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy: a critical incident technique study. Front Public Health 2021; 9:623904..

Italy adopted the mitigation strategy, with central government intervention for a national lockdown at a critical moment in the epidemic, when local lockdowns were not sufficient to stabilize the situation. At that time, databases recorded a high incidence at the national level, exceeding the level of 250 new cases per week per 100,000 inhabitants³¹31 Pezzotti P, Punzo O, Bella A, Del Manso M, Urdiales AM, Fabiani M, Ciervo A, Andrianou X, Riccardo F, Stefanelli P. The challenges of the outbreak: the Italian COVID-19 integrated surveillance system. Eur J Public Health 2020; 30(Supl. 5):ckaa165.356..

There are records of investments in the dissemination of public information through traditional communication channels and social media to warn people about the pandemic, as well as to combat misinformation and false information on two fronts: disseminating information on the official website, encouraging citizens to seek it out through these channels; and contacting the companies responsible for social networks, such as Google, Instagram and others, to support the fight against fake news³⁰30 Falkenbach M, Caiani M. Italy's Response to COVID-19. In: Greer SL, King EJ, Fonseca EM, Peralta-Santos A, organizadores. Coronavirus politics: the comparative politics and policy of COVID-19. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press; 2021. p. 361-377..

Due to the characteristics of Italy and its health system, the response, the organization of actions, the adherence of the population and also the political support for the decisions to combat COVID-19 varied from one region to another. The high degree of political-administrative decentralization in the national health system resulted in different directions, prioritizing the most affected regions in the first actions¹⁹19 Buzelli ML, Boyce T. The privatization of the Italian National Health System and its impact on health emergency preparedness and response: the COVID-19 case. Int J Health Serv 2021; 51(4):501-508.^,2020 Pecoraro F, Luzi D, Clemente F. Analysis of the different approaches adopted in the Italian regions to care for patients affected by COVID-19. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2021; 18(3):848.^,2121 Mauro M, Giancotti M. Italian responses to the COVID-19 emergency: overthrowing 30 years of health reforms? Health Policy 2021; 125(4):548-552.. As a result, Italy configured very different responses, even in contiguous and nearby regions²⁰20 Pecoraro F, Luzi D, Clemente F. Analysis of the different approaches adopted in the Italian regions to care for patients affected by COVID-19. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2021; 18(3):848.^,2121 Mauro M, Giancotti M. Italian responses to the COVID-19 emergency: overthrowing 30 years of health reforms? Health Policy 2021; 125(4):548-552.. Although the literature considers the country’s response a failure, there were successful regions, such as Venetto, whose response was based on territorial surveillance, with a consequent reduction in hospitalizations²¹21 Mauro M, Giancotti M. Italian responses to the COVID-19 emergency: overthrowing 30 years of health reforms? Health Policy 2021; 125(4):548-552..

An investment plan was developed to expand hospital capacity, recruit ICU doctors and nurses, medical students and retired health professionals, and purchase medical equipment²¹21 Mauro M, Giancotti M. Italian responses to the COVID-19 emergency: overthrowing 30 years of health reforms? Health Policy 2021; 125(4):548-552.^,3333 Salmaso S, Zambri F, Renzi M, Giusti A. Interrupting the chains of transmission of COVID-19 in Italy: survey among the Prevention Departments. Epidemiol Prev 2020; 44(5-6 Supl. 2):33-41..

In the case of surveillance, the common national infrastructure for reporting infectious diseases was not used. Different data streams were created that required time for local configuration and adaptation, leading to inconsistent responses among local health authorities³¹31 Pezzotti P, Punzo O, Bella A, Del Manso M, Urdiales AM, Fabiani M, Ciervo A, Andrianou X, Riccardo F, Stefanelli P. The challenges of the outbreak: the Italian COVID-19 integrated surveillance system. Eur J Public Health 2020; 30(Supl. 5):ckaa165.356.^,3333 Salmaso S, Zambri F, Renzi M, Giusti A. Interrupting the chains of transmission of COVID-19 in Italy: survey among the Prevention Departments. Epidemiol Prev 2020; 44(5-6 Supl. 2):33-41..

The graphs from Figure 2 show the correlation between the epidemiological situation and the main measures adopted by the countries, between February and June 2020, in the two countries studied.

Discussion

The two countries investigated experienced the pandemic at the same time and had different outcomes. While Italy reached 564.06 deaths per million inhabitants by May 31, 2020, Vietnam had no deaths during the period studied¹²12 Shokoohi M, Osooli M, Stranges S. COVID-19 Pandemic: what can the West learn from the East? Int J Health Policy Manag 2020; 9(10):436-438.^,3535 Mathieu E, Ritchie H, Rodés-Guirao L, Appel C, Giattino C, Hasell J, Macdonald B, Dattani S, Beltekian D, Ortiz-Ospina E, Roser M. Total confirmed COVID-19 deaths and cases per million people: world. Our World in Data [Internet]. 2022. [cited 2023 jan 31]. Available from: https://ourworldindata.org/covid-deaths
https://ourworldindata.org/covid-deaths... .

Vietnam’s positive performance can be attributed to several factors, including strong national coordination that synchronized the actions of the other levels of the system and defined roles and behaviors for managing the health crisis. As in Vietnam, other studies have highlighted that national coordination was a key element in tackling COVID-19 in countries such as China and South Korea³3 Rossi TRA, Soares CLM, Silva GA, Paim JS, Vieira-Da-Silva LM. The response by South Korea to the COVID-19 pandemic: lessons learned and recommendations for policymakers. Cad Saude Publica 2022; 38(1):e00118621.^,3636 Pereira AMM. A resposta à COVID-19 na China: planejamento central e governança nacional da vigilância e atenção à saúde. In: Machado CV, Pereira AMM, Freitas CM, organizadores. Políticas e sistemas de saúde em tempos de pandemia: nove países, muitas lições. Rio de Janeiro: Fiocruz; 2022. p. 47-80..

In contrast to these countries, Italy had a fragile, slow, diffuse and poorly articulated national coordination, where the central government assumed the role of guiding and monitoring²¹21 Mauro M, Giancotti M. Italian responses to the COVID-19 emergency: overthrowing 30 years of health reforms? Health Policy 2021; 125(4):548-552.. In this sense, authors²⁸28 Peralta-Santos A, Saboga-Nunes L, Magalhães PC. Tale of two pandemics in three countries: Portugal, Spain, and Italy. In: Greer SL, King EJ, Fonseca EM, Peralta-Santos A, organizadores. Coronavirus politics: the comparative politics and policy of COVID-19. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press; 2021. have pointed out that the regionalized organization of the health system in Italy, although having advantages in terms of flexibility to adapt to local needs and allowing innovative experiments in terms of service delivery models, may have been a disadvantage during the epidemic, which required a higher level of coordination and faster decision-making.

Although the study points to a negative scenario observed in Italy, local experiences gained in the country show that a response focused on territorial and community-based primary care made it possible to reduce hospitalizations and avoid the collapse of the health system¹⁹19 Buzelli ML, Boyce T. The privatization of the Italian National Health System and its impact on health emergency preparedness and response: the COVID-19 case. Int J Health Serv 2021; 51(4):501-508.^,2020 Pecoraro F, Luzi D, Clemente F. Analysis of the different approaches adopted in the Italian regions to care for patients affected by COVID-19. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2021; 18(3):848.^,3333 Salmaso S, Zambri F, Renzi M, Giusti A. Interrupting the chains of transmission of COVID-19 in Italy: survey among the Prevention Departments. Epidemiol Prev 2020; 44(5-6 Supl. 2):33-41.. Other studies confirm that this model was important in controlling the pandemic, even in situations where primary care was not well structured within the health system. In the case of China³⁶36 Pereira AMM. A resposta à COVID-19 na China: planejamento central e governança nacional da vigilância e atenção à saúde. In: Machado CV, Pereira AMM, Freitas CM, organizadores. Políticas e sistemas de saúde em tempos de pandemia: nove países, muitas lições. Rio de Janeiro: Fiocruz; 2022. p. 47-80. and South Korea³3 Rossi TRA, Soares CLM, Silva GA, Paim JS, Vieira-Da-Silva LM. The response by South Korea to the COVID-19 pandemic: lessons learned and recommendations for policymakers. Cad Saude Publica 2022; 38(1):e00118621., PHC was essential for case and contract tracing. On the other hand, the lack of coordination in the COVID-19 response system led in some cases to communication problems between different levels of care, which in turn created bureaucratic obstacles, even in countries where primary care is the organizer of the health system³⁴34 Kurotschka PK, Serafini A, Demontis M, Serafini A, Mereu A, Moro MF, Carta MG, Ghirotto L. General practitioners' experiences during the first phase of the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy: a critical incident technique study. Front Public Health 2021; 9:623904..

In the case of Italy, Mauro and Giocontti²¹21 Mauro M, Giancotti M. Italian responses to the COVID-19 emergency: overthrowing 30 years of health reforms? Health Policy 2021; 125(4):548-552. add that due to the country’s high degree of political-administrative decentralization, a debate is needed on the role of the central government and the need for possible (re)centralization in health emergencies, as the differences in service provision due to regional inequalities and the lack of integration and coordination to deal with competition between health care providers (private/public and public/public) were negative factors in the management of the pandemic.

The adoption of territorial and community surveillance in Vietnam, together with the exaltation of a collective national spirit and the engagement of the whole of society, were important features of the country’s response⁸8 Nguyen HTT, Nguyen TT, Dam VAT, Nguyen LH, Vu GT, Nguyen HLT, Nguyen HT, Le HT. COVID-19 Employment crisis in vietnam: global issue, national solutions. Front Public Health 2020; 8:590074.. In this regard, the existence of decentralized structures coordinated by a national body directing decision-making on communicable disease surveillance was fundamental. A similar situation was observed in China, where the decentralized network for disease control and prevention in the territories contributed to the control of the epidemic³⁶36 Pereira AMM. A resposta à COVID-19 na China: planejamento central e governança nacional da vigilância e atenção à saúde. In: Machado CV, Pereira AMM, Freitas CM, organizadores. Políticas e sistemas de saúde em tempos de pandemia: nove países, muitas lições. Rio de Janeiro: Fiocruz; 2022. p. 47-80., and in South Korea, where decentralized structures linked to the Center for Disease Control (KCDC) acted in the surveillance of COVID-19³3 Rossi TRA, Soares CLM, Silva GA, Paim JS, Vieira-Da-Silva LM. The response by South Korea to the COVID-19 pandemic: lessons learned and recommendations for policymakers. Cad Saude Publica 2022; 38(1):e00118621..

In all these countries, there was a unified direction and behavior, guided by rigorously planned actions. There is evidence that the structures used to face COVID-19 were qualified by experience with other epidemics³3 Rossi TRA, Soares CLM, Silva GA, Paim JS, Vieira-Da-Silva LM. The response by South Korea to the COVID-19 pandemic: lessons learned and recommendations for policymakers. Cad Saude Publica 2022; 38(1):e00118621.. In particular, in the case of Vietnam, the development of a health emergency plan and an event-based surveillance model enabled an appropriate and rapid response. In the case of China, in addition to the establishment of a National Emergency Plan, a governance forum was set up to address the H1N1 epidemic, with a surveillance system with alerts for rapid response³⁶36 Pereira AMM. A resposta à COVID-19 na China: planejamento central e governança nacional da vigilância e atenção à saúde. In: Machado CV, Pereira AMM, Freitas CM, organizadores. Políticas e sistemas de saúde em tempos de pandemia: nove países, muitas lições. Rio de Janeiro: Fiocruz; 2022. p. 47-80.. And in South Korea, a warning system for the risk of infectious diseases was defined, with stages and actions to be developed according to the epidemiological situation³3 Rossi TRA, Soares CLM, Silva GA, Paim JS, Vieira-Da-Silva LM. The response by South Korea to the COVID-19 pandemic: lessons learned and recommendations for policymakers. Cad Saude Publica 2022; 38(1):e00118621.. It is noteworthy that the fact that Vietnam developed a contingency plan to contain the spread of coronavirus and has a “toolbox” to be used in the case of need¹⁶16 Nguyen HV, Hoang MV, Dao ATM, Nguyen HL, Nguyen TV, Nguyen PT, Khuong LQ, Le PM, Gilmour S. An adaptive model of health system organization and responses helped Vietnam to successfully halt the Covid-19 pandemic: What lessons can be learned from a resource-constrained country. Int J Health Plann Manage 2020; 35(5):988-992.^,2323 Nguyen HB, Nguyen THM, Tran TTT, Vo THN, Tran VH, Do TNP, Troung QB, Nguyen TH, Ly LK. Knowledge, attitudes, practices, and related factors towards COVID-19 prevention among patients at University Medical Center Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Risk Manag Healthc Policy 2021; 14:2119-2132. favored the control of the epidemic in the country during the period studied²³23 Nguyen HB, Nguyen THM, Tran TTT, Vo THN, Tran VH, Do TNP, Troung QB, Nguyen TH, Ly LK. Knowledge, attitudes, practices, and related factors towards COVID-19 prevention among patients at University Medical Center Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Risk Manag Healthc Policy 2021; 14:2119-2132.. The creation of clinical support management for COVID-19 patients with the issuance of protocols unifying clinical conduct, at a time when little was known about the disease, seems to have facilitated the management of COVID-19 cases by health professionals in Vietnam⁷7 Ha BTT, Quang LN, Mirzoev T, Tai NT, Thai PQ, Dinh PC. Combating the COVID-19 epidemic: experiences from Vietnam. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2020; 17(9):3125.. In contrast, in the Italian case, the literature indicates that there was no consensus in the country on the measures to be taken to reduce the transmission of the virus, whether on non-pharmacological measures or on the clinical management of infected people¹⁹19 Buzelli ML, Boyce T. The privatization of the Italian National Health System and its impact on health emergency preparedness and response: the COVID-19 case. Int J Health Serv 2021; 51(4):501-508.. Authors report that one day before the publication of the lockdown decree in the Lombardy region, the most important newspaper in the country published the draft decree and caused the uncontrolled displacement of more than 41,000 people across the country³⁴34 Kurotschka PK, Serafini A, Demontis M, Serafini A, Mereu A, Moro MF, Carta MG, Ghirotto L. General practitioners' experiences during the first phase of the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy: a critical incident technique study. Front Public Health 2021; 9:623904..

The literature also records, in the case of Italy, that the measures adopted for the reform of the health system in the last 30 years led to a reduction in the supply and provision of services for care in general, affecting the number of beds, mainly in ICUs, as well as health professionals¹⁹19 Buzelli ML, Boyce T. The privatization of the Italian National Health System and its impact on health emergency preparedness and response: the COVID-19 case. Int J Health Serv 2021; 51(4):501-508.. In contrast, the reform of the Vietnamese health system was able to increase the effectiveness of the response to COVID-19, mainly by integrating care and surveillance actions, defining strategic roles for each level of health care, and including health promotion practices, with a focus on health education⁷7 Ha BTT, Quang LN, Mirzoev T, Tai NT, Thai PQ, Dinh PC. Combating the COVID-19 epidemic: experiences from Vietnam. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2020; 17(9):3125.^,88 Nguyen HTT, Nguyen TT, Dam VAT, Nguyen LH, Vu GT, Nguyen HLT, Nguyen HT, Le HT. COVID-19 Employment crisis in vietnam: global issue, national solutions. Front Public Health 2020; 8:590074..

Although the study did not aim to compare the responses of the two countries, due to the historical and structural differences between them, it was possible to verify that the main strategies adopted by Vietnam and Italy, containment and mitigation, respectively, had positive effects on the response to the pandemic.

Concluding remarks

The results presented reiterate elements of an appropriate response that have been identified in other studies³⁷37 Machado CV, Pereira AMM, Freitas CM. As respostas dos países à pandemia em perspectiva comparada: semelhanças, diferenças, condicionantes e lições. In: Machado CV, Pereira AMM, Freitas CM, organizadores. Políticas e sistemas de saúde em tempos de pandemia: nove países, muitas lições. Rio de Janeiro: Fiocruz; 2022. p. 323-343., such as strong national coordination, experience translated into learning in the management of communicable diseases that is reflected in action planning and community-based surveillance involving society at large.

The study points out that the containment strategy adopted by Vietnam was fundamental to avoiding deaths in the country. In particular, the institutional articulation between care and surveillance mobilized health practices that favored the control of the pandemic, as well as the collectivist and cooperative spirit as an element of citizenship.

With regard to Italy, the mitigation strategy used to some extent reversed the chaotic situation in which the country found itself during this period. However, this was only possible thanks to the action of the central government and the introduction of the national lockdown, which reaffirmed the role of the state in times of health crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

Finally, for future pandemics, it is worth considering the need to translate lessons learned into policy action to ensure the health of populations around the world.

References

Publication Dates

History