Abstract

The study presents empirical evidence of the personal and contextual variables that protect against the negative effects of stress on workers’ well-being and health. A systematic review of the literature of the last eleven years (2006 to 2016) was carried out in the Ebsco, LILACS, SciELO, Google Scholar, and PubMed databases, and in six Annual Reviews journals. Fifty national and international articles related to stress and well-being were analyzed. The results show that work-related factors, personal resources such as resilience, self-efficacy, emotional competencies, psychological detachment, work-life interface, and group-level factors have effects on well-being. The perceived social support of peers and managers, alongside autonomy at work, attenuate the negative impact of stress on well-being. It ends with suggestions for future studies to test relationships between variables that have not yet been explored and to deepen the understanding of the relationships between stress and well-being at work.

Key words
Occupational Stress; Working Conditions; Job Satisfaction; Review

Introduction

Stress is one of the concepts most studied and mentioned in psychology, since it is manifested in everyday life as a factor that can put the psychological and physical health of people at risk¹1 Chen WQ, Wong TW, Yu TS. Influence of occupational stress on mental health among chinese off-shore oil workers. Scand J Public Health 2009; 37(7):766-773.

2 Ford MT, Matthews RA, Wooldridge JD, Mishra V, Kakar UM, Strahan SR. How do occupational stressor-strain effects vary with time? A review and meta-analysis of the relevance of time lags in longitudinal studies. Work Stress 2014; 28(1):9-30.

3 Mihaila T. Perceived stress scale as a predictor of professional behavior and aspects of wellbeing. Rom J Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Hypnosis 2015; 2(2):1-14.^-44 Schaufeli WB, Taris TW. A critical review of the Job Demands-Resources Model: implications for improving work and health. In: Bauer GF, Hämmig O, editores. Bridging occupational, organizational and public health a transdisciplinary approach. Netherlands: Springer; 2014. p. 43-68.. The three main perspectives for approaches to stress are: i) one that emphasizes the physiological responses and reactions of the individual to the stressors; ii) one that seeks to investigate the stress factors in the environment that provoke damage to the well-being and health of individuals; and iii) the psychological/cognitive one that focuses on the relationship between the individual and the environment, that is, how the person evaluates and perceives the stressor event⁵5 Lazarus RS, Folkman S. Stress, appraisal and coping. New York: Springer; 1984.. This last approach is cited by most of the articles studied⁶6 Rothmann S, Malan M. Work-related well-being of South African hospital pharmacists. S Afr J Ind Psychol 2011; 37(1):1-11.

7 Sanches EN, Santos JDF. Estresse em docentes universitários da saúde: situações geradoras, sintomas e estratégias de enfrentamento. Psicol Argum 2013; 31(75):615-626.

8 Santos AFO, Cardoso CL. Profissionais de saúde mental: estresse, enfrentamento e qualidade de vida Psicol Teoria Pesq 2010; 26(3):543-548.^-99 Scheibe S, Zacher H. The role of emotion and emotion regulation in job stress and wellbeing. Res Occupational Stress Well-being 2013; 11:163-193..

According to Lazarus¹⁰10 Lazarus RS. Stress and emotion: a new synthesis. New York: Springer; 1999., the way we evaluate an event determines how we react emotionally. Thus, work-related stress is influenced by the perception that the subject has of the demands in the work environment and his/her capacity to face them. In other words, in order for the work-related stress process to occur, workers have to evaluate the situation and the demands of the environment as stressors, and see themselves as lacking the resources to deal with them, generating reactions with negative effects on their well-being. Considering the complexity of the stress phenomenon, permeated by a series of psychological, social, and biological processes that involve human-environmental interaction, recent studies inspired by the Positive Psychology movement have been trying to understand how these processes can interfere in the health and well-being of people¹¹11 Häusser JA, Mojzisch A, Niesel M, Schulz-Hardt S. Ten years on: A review of recent research on the Job Demand-Control (-Support) model and psychological well-being. Work Stress 2010; 24(1):1-35.

12 Malik S, Noreen S. Perceived Organizational Support as a Moderator of Affective Well-being and Occupational Stress among Teachers. Pak J Commerce Soc Sci 2015; 9(3):865-874.^-1313 Shallcross AJ, Troy A, Mauss IB. Change your feelings or leave them be? (or both?): how best to regulate emotions in the face of stress. In: Scott R, Kosslyn S, editores. Emerging trends in social and behavioral sciences. Hoboken: John Wiley and Sons; 2015. p. 1-24..

The movement known as Positive Psychology¹⁴14 Seligman MEP, Csikszentmihalyi M. Positive psychology: an introduction. Am Psychol 2000; 55:5-14. emphasizes the positive aspects of human experience, and seeks to understand the qualities that help individuals develop their potential, maintain their physical and psychological health, and their personal well-being. This movement has also spread among the scholars of organizations, giving rise to a variety of studies developed in the work context, emphasizing the role of traits, positive affective states, behaviors, and virtues that predispose individuals to experience well-being at work (WBW)¹⁵15 Ferreira MC. Antecedentes individuais do bem-estar no trabalho sob a ótica da psicologia positiva. In: Ferreira MC, Mendonça H, organizadores. Saúde e bem-estar no trabalho: dimensões individuais e culturais. São Paulo: Casa do Psicólogo; 2014.. Work-related well-being can be said to encompass a diversity of experiences that include positive affective states (e.g., enthusiasm), low levels of negative affective states (e.g., anxiety), good psychosomatic health and cognitive states such as aspirations and judgments about job satisfaction¹⁶16 Daniels K. Stress and well-being are still issues and something still needs to be done: or why agency and interpretation are important for policy and practice. In: Hodgkinson GP, Ford JK, editores. International review of industrial and organizational psychology. New York: Wiley; 2011. p.1-46..

In addition to stress factors stemming from the workplace, personal resources such as self-esteem and emotional stability, and the work-home interface seem to influence the fluctuations in indicators of well-being¹⁷17 Sonnentag S. Dynamics of Well-Being. Annu Rev Organ Psychol Organ Behav 2015; 2:17.1-17.33.. The experience of stress at work has been consistently associated with negative results for employees, measured by a range of well-being indicators, both psychological and physiological¹⁸18 Ganster DC, Rosen CC. Work stress and employee health: a multidisciplinary review. J Management 2013; 20(10):1-38.

19 Lang J, Ochsmann E, Kraus T, Lang JW. Psychosocial work stressors as antecedents of musculoskeletal problems: a systematic review and meta-analysis of stability-adjusted longitudinal studies. Soc Sci Med 2012; 75(7):1163-1174.^-2020 Laranjeira CA. O contexto organizacional e a experiência de estresse: uma perspectiva integrativa. Rev Salud Publica 2009; 11(1):123-133.. However, in confronting events perceived as stressors, these individuals react differently. Although many studies conclude that there is a negative association between stress and well-being at work¹1 Chen WQ, Wong TW, Yu TS. Influence of occupational stress on mental health among chinese off-shore oil workers. Scand J Public Health 2009; 37(7):766-773.^,1818 Ganster DC, Rosen CC. Work stress and employee health: a multidisciplinary review. J Management 2013; 20(10):1-38.

19 Lang J, Ochsmann E, Kraus T, Lang JW. Psychosocial work stressors as antecedents of musculoskeletal problems: a systematic review and meta-analysis of stability-adjusted longitudinal studies. Soc Sci Med 2012; 75(7):1163-1174.

20 Laranjeira CA. O contexto organizacional e a experiência de estresse: uma perspectiva integrativa. Rev Salud Publica 2009; 11(1):123-133.

21 Bell A, Rajendran D, Theiler S. Job stress, wellbeing and work-life balance of academics. J Appl Psychol 2012; 8(1):25-37.^-2222 Silva JLL, Santos RSFB, Costa FS, Taveira RPC, Teixeira LR. Estressores na atividade gerencial do enfermeiro: implicações para saúde. Avances Enfermería 2013; 31(2):144-152., there has been a growing number of studies that seek to explain under what conditions stressors may not adversely affect WBW¹⁷17 Sonnentag S. Dynamics of Well-Being. Annu Rev Organ Psychol Organ Behav 2015; 2:17.1-17.33.^,2323 Ilies R, Aw SSY, Pluut H. Intraindividual models of employee well-being: What have we learned and where do we go from here? Eur J Work Organ Psychol 2015; 24(6):827-838.

24 Millán de Lange AC, Garcia-Alvarez DJ, D’Aubeterre Lopez ME. Efecto de la inteligencia emocional y flujo de trabajo sobre estresores y bienestar psicologico: analisis de ruta en docentes. Rev Colombiana Psicol 2014; 23(1):207-228.^-2525 Sonnentag S, Fritz C. Recovery from job stress: the stressor-detachment model as an integrative framework. J Organ Behav 2015; 36(S1):S72-S103.. Various studies highlight the important role of resilience and the strategies used to control and deal with one’s emotions (emotional self-regulation), and to cope with stressful situations, which can be effective in reducing stress and improving well-being in various contexts²⁶26 Fortes-Ferreira L, Peiró JM, González-Morales MG, Martín I. Work-related stress and well-being: the roles of direct action coping and palliative coping. Scand J Psychol 2006; 47(4):293-302.

27 Karlsen E, Dybdahl R, Vitterso J. The possible benefits of difficulty: how stress can increase and decrease subjective well-being. Scand J Psychol 2006; 47(5):411-417.

28 Kashdan TB, Barrios V, Forsyth JP, Steger MF. Experiential avoidance as a generalized psychological vulnerability: comparisons with coping and emotion regulation strategies. Behav Res Ther 2006; 44(9):1301-1320.

29 Kvillemo P, Bränström R. Coping with Breast Cancer: A Meta-Analysis. PLoS One 2014; 9(11):e112733.^-3030 Troy AS, Mauss IB. Resilience in the face of stress: emotion regulation as a protective factor. In: Southwick SM, Litz BT, Charney D, Friedman MJ, editores. Resilience and Mental Health: Challenges Across the Lifespan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2011. p. 30-44..

The systematic review presented in this article sought to explore and understand the relationships that exist between stress and well-being at work, attempting to find evidence of which personal and/or environmental variables have protective effects for the well-being of workers, with positive impacts on their physical, mental, and social health. The study contributes to an overall view of the state of the art in this field of research, a critical assessment of the results obtained, as well as generating inputs to support proposals for improving well-being at work (WBW) and reducing stress in organizations. It also discusses the relevant theoretical and practical implications based on the results found and suggests directions for future research in the field.

Methodological Procedures

Data collection and analysis procedure

The first step of searching for articles was carried out during June and July 2016, in the following databases: Ebsco, Google Scholar, Lilacs (Latin American and Caribbean Literature on Health Sciences), SciELO (Scientific Electronic Library Online), and PubMed (National Library of Medicine). A search was also done on six Annual Reviews journals (Annual Review of Environment and Resources, Law and Social Science, Neuroscience, Organizational Psychology, Psychology, Public Health). The databases were chosen because they cover a large and diversified volume of scientific publications representative of the diverse fields of knowledge, since stress is a well-studied construct. The Annual Reviews are publications dedicated to literature review articles, which would help identify the evolution of the findings on stress, well-being, and work. The key words used for the article search were: “stress”, “wellbeing”, “job”, and “work” in English, aiming to cover the national [Brazilian] and international literature. The database searches were configured to retrieve the words in the “title”, “summary”, and “keywords” fields. The Boolean operator “and” was used to request the selected words to appear in those fields. It was determined that the databases should present the articles published from 2006 to 2016, covering the last 11 years, a period with an intensification of studies on well-being in the context of work, driven by the Positive Psychology movement. In the PubMed database, specifically, we selected only review and meta-analysis articles in order to filter the initial search, which resulted in 3, 996 titles. Through these procedures, a total of 675 references were obtained.

In the second step, the titles and abstracts of these works were read, excluding those that did not correspond to the general objective of this review, as well as theses, books, and editorials, with 134 thus remaining. In the third step, during the process of a more detailed reading of these articles, 81 of them were discarded, considering the following exclusion criteria: (a) type of study: theoretical articles; (b) focus of the study: those dealing only with burnout syndrome (antecedents, predictors, and prevalence), with the reverse effect between stressor and well-being/tension, those to validate instruments or evaluate intervention programs for stress reduction; (c) measurement: articles in which well-being was measured only by job satisfaction; (d) sample type: consisting of university students, elderly, or young people not included in the labor market. In the final step, 50 articles were selected that met the following inclusion criteria: (a) type of study: empirical scientific review or meta-analysis articles; (b) year of publication: between 2006 and 2016; (c) focus of the study: dealing with the relations between stressors/stress and well-being at work/of workers, including moderating and mediating variables or not; (d) measurement: assessing or measuring stress and/or stress factors at work, and positive and negative aspects of well-being/health (physical, psychological, social, work-related, among others); (e) sample type: workers from various categories; (f) publication languages: Portuguese, English, or Spanish. Figure 1 illustrates these procedures performed to select the material.

For the systematization and analysis of the material, all the articles that met the inclusion criteria were read in full, and their basic information summarized, such as authorship, year of publication, methodological outline, study focus, study variables (independent variable - IV, dependent variable - DV, moderating and mediating variables), and conclusions (correlations between variables, main predictors, etc.). Predictive variables are those capable of predicting effects on another variable, while the moderating variables are those that can affect the direction and strength of the relationship between the IV, or antecedent, and the DV, or consequent variable. The mediator variable is one that, when introduced into the model, makes the relationship between an IV and a DV no longer significant, since the relation between them is better explained by the mediator³¹31 Mendonça H, Ferreira MC, Porto J, Zanini DS. Saúde, qualidade de vida e bem-estar: limites e interfaces teórico-metodológicas. In: Ferreira MC, Mendonça H, organizadores. Saúde e bem-estar no trabalho: dimensões individuais e culturais. São Paulo: Casa do Psicólogo; 2012.. The data were collected in tables, separating the review/meta-analysis studies from the empirical studies. The suggestions from the studies in general, regarding future research and applicability of results in organizations, were also summarized and integrated.

Results

The articles analyzed are presented in four tables, in order to facilitate visualization and understanding of the data. Charts 1 and 2 present a summary of the review and meta-analysis articles (authorship/year of publication, type of review and sample, IV and DV, other variables, and conclusions). Chart 1 lists eleven studies published between 2011 and 2016, and Chart 2 presents four studies published between 2006 and 2010, totaling fifteen (15). Charts 3 and 4 present the summary of the empirical articles (authorship/year of publication, type of study and participants, focus of the study, and conclusions). Chart 3 lists nineteen studies published between 2011 and 2016, and Chart 4 presents sixteen studies between 2006 and 2010, totaling thirty-five (35). The main positive and negative predictors of well-being at work (WBW), the environmental and individual moderators, the mediators, the positive predictors of tension, physical and psychological symptoms, and health problems are highlighted in the conclusions. The studies are arranged in descending order of publication year, with the most recent ones first, organized in alphabetical order by author name.

Considering the totality of the selected articles, it is observed that from the review and meta-analysis studies (Chart 1 and 2), eleven were published between 2011 and 2016 (73.3%), and only four pertain to the previous period (2006 to 2010), indicating a considerable increase in scientific production in the last five years. As to the empirical studies (Chart 3 and 4), nineteen appear in this more recent period (54.3%).

As for the geographical location where the empirical studies were carried out, eight were from Brazil and the rest from other countries: Portugal (3), South Africa (3), two or more countries (3), Australia (2), Iran (2), Argentina (1), Chile (1), China (1), Spain (1), USA (1), Japan (1), Norway (1), Netherlands (1), Pakistan (1), United Kingdom (1), Switzerland (1), Taiwan (1), Turkey (1), Venezuela (1). The participants in these studies were workers from various sectors, including mainly health professionals (45%), teachers (20%), workers in general (11%), and others (24%): public employees, military personnel, banking and industry professionals. Regarding the review and meta-analysis studies, the origins are quite diverse since they consider many studies from different countries, with most being samples of workers in general (80%). Two studies were conducted with health professionals (13.3%) and only one with industry employees (6.7%).

As for the method, Charts 3 and 4 clearly indicate the prevalence of a quantitative approach using self-reported scales in the empirical studies, corresponding to 82.8% (N = 29). Only six qualitative studies were found. A significant difference was observed regarding the inclusion of moderators and mediators, being considered in 60% of the review and meta-analysis studies and in only 31% of the quantitative empirical studies.

Review and Meta-analysis Studies: predictors

The main negative predictors of well-being at work (WBW) are stressors and lack of resources at work: pressure and overload¹⁷17 Sonnentag S. Dynamics of Well-Being. Annu Rev Organ Psychol Organ Behav 2015; 2:17.1-17.33.^,2222 Silva JLL, Santos RSFB, Costa FS, Taveira RPC, Teixeira LR. Estressores na atividade gerencial do enfermeiro: implicações para saúde. Avances Enfermería 2013; 31(2):144-152.^,2323 Ilies R, Aw SSY, Pluut H. Intraindividual models of employee well-being: What have we learned and where do we go from here? Eur J Work Organ Psychol 2015; 24(6):827-838.^,2525 Sonnentag S, Fritz C. Recovery from job stress: the stressor-detachment model as an integrative framework. J Organ Behav 2015; 36(S1):S72-S103., high demands and low control¹⁸18 Ganster DC, Rosen CC. Work stress and employee health: a multidisciplinary review. J Management 2013; 20(10):1-38.^,2020 Laranjeira CA. O contexto organizacional e a experiência de estresse: uma perspectiva integrativa. Rev Salud Publica 2009; 11(1):123-133., monotony and low decision-making power²⁰20 Laranjeira CA. O contexto organizacional e a experiência de estresse: uma perspectiva integrativa. Rev Salud Publica 2009; 11(1):123-133., negative social interactions and lack of social support¹⁷17 Sonnentag S. Dynamics of Well-Being. Annu Rev Organ Psychol Organ Behav 2015; 2:17.1-17.33.^,2020 Laranjeira CA. O contexto organizacional e a experiência de estresse: uma perspectiva integrativa. Rev Salud Publica 2009; 11(1):123-133., and negative affective events at work²³23 Ilies R, Aw SSY, Pluut H. Intraindividual models of employee well-being: What have we learned and where do we go from here? Eur J Work Organ Psychol 2015; 24(6):827-838.. Individual factors such as low psychological detachment during time off²⁵25 Sonnentag S, Fritz C. Recovery from job stress: the stressor-detachment model as an integrative framework. J Organ Behav 2015; 36(S1):S72-S103., negative emotions and dysfunctional emotion regulation (ER)³²32 Lawrence SA, Troth AC, Jordan PJ, Collins AL. A review of emotion regulation and development of a framework for emotion regulation in the workplace. In: Perrewé PL, Ganster DC, editores. Research in Occupational Stress and Well-being. Bingley: Emerald; 2011. p. 197-263., and work-family conflict¹⁷17 Sonnentag S. Dynamics of Well-Being. Annu Rev Organ Psychol Organ Behav 2015; 2:17.1-17.33.^,2323 Ilies R, Aw SSY, Pluut H. Intraindividual models of employee well-being: What have we learned and where do we go from here? Eur J Work Organ Psychol 2015; 24(6):827-838. were cited less often.

As positive predictors of WBW, personal resources such as self-esteem, active coping, optimism and self-efficacy¹⁷17 Sonnentag S. Dynamics of Well-Being. Annu Rev Organ Psychol Organ Behav 2015; 2:17.1-17.33., affective commitment at work³³33 Meyer JP, Maltin ER. Employee commitment and well-being: a critical review, theoretical framework and research agenda. J Vocat Behav 2010; 77(2):323-337., the experience of positive emotions, and functional emotion regulation (ER)³²32 Lawrence SA, Troth AC, Jordan PJ, Collins AL. A review of emotion regulation and development of a framework for emotion regulation in the workplace. In: Perrewé PL, Ganster DC, editores. Research in Occupational Stress and Well-being. Bingley: Emerald; 2011. p. 197-263. are highlighted. Resources at work⁴4 Schaufeli WB, Taris TW. A critical review of the Job Demands-Resources Model: implications for improving work and health. In: Bauer GF, Hämmig O, editores. Bridging occupational, organizational and public health a transdisciplinary approach. Netherlands: Springer; 2014. p. 43-68., which refer to the physical, psychological, social, or organizational aspects of the work environment that are aimed at achieving goals and reducing psychological costs, such as social support at work¹⁷17 Sonnentag S. Dynamics of Well-Being. Annu Rev Organ Psychol Organ Behav 2015; 2:17.1-17.33., and positive affective events at work²³23 Ilies R, Aw SSY, Pluut H. Intraindividual models of employee well-being: What have we learned and where do we go from here? Eur J Work Organ Psychol 2015; 24(6):827-838., were pointed out. Group factors as social cohesion and collective efficacy were cited in only one study²⁰20 Laranjeira CA. O contexto organizacional e a experiência de estresse: uma perspectiva integrativa. Rev Salud Publica 2009; 11(1):123-133..

As predictors of tension, symptoms, and physical/psychological disorders, chronic stressors, such as high demands, lack of resources and social support²⁰20 Laranjeira CA. O contexto organizacional e a experiência de estresse: uma perspectiva integrativa. Rev Salud Publica 2009; 11(1):123-133.^,3232 Lawrence SA, Troth AC, Jordan PJ, Collins AL. A review of emotion regulation and development of a framework for emotion regulation in the workplace. In: Perrewé PL, Ganster DC, editores. Research in Occupational Stress and Well-being. Bingley: Emerald; 2011. p. 197-263.^,3434 Nieuwenhuijsen K, Bruinvels D, Frings-Dresen M. Psychosocial work environment and stress-related disorders, a systematic review. Occup Med (Lond) 2010; 60(4):277-286., and low psychological detachment from work¹1 Chen WQ, Wong TW, Yu TS. Influence of occupational stress on mental health among chinese off-shore oil workers. Scand J Public Health 2009; 37(7):766-773. stand out (Chart 1).

Review and Meta-analysis Studies: moderators

Environmental and individual moderators that ease the negative impact of stressors on workers’ well-being deserve attention. The principal moderators of the environment are the resources at work, such as control and social support at work¹¹11 Häusser JA, Mojzisch A, Niesel M, Schulz-Hardt S. Ten years on: A review of recent research on the Job Demand-Control (-Support) model and psychological well-being. Work Stress 2010; 24(1):1-35.^,1818 Ganster DC, Rosen CC. Work stress and employee health: a multidisciplinary review. J Management 2013; 20(10):1-38.^,2323 Ilies R, Aw SSY, Pluut H. Intraindividual models of employee well-being: What have we learned and where do we go from here? Eur J Work Organ Psychol 2015; 24(6):827-838., positive events at work, worker autonomy, perception of organizational support, and the climate of security¹⁷17 Sonnentag S. Dynamics of Well-Being. Annu Rev Organ Psychol Organ Behav 2015; 2:17.1-17.33..

Whereas personal resources, in addition to reducing the negative repercussion of stressors, increase the positive effect of organizational resources on well-being at work (WBW)⁴4 Schaufeli WB, Taris TW. A critical review of the Job Demands-Resources Model: implications for improving work and health. In: Bauer GF, Hämmig O, editores. Bridging occupational, organizational and public health a transdisciplinary approach. Netherlands: Springer; 2014. p. 43-68.. These are: emotional stability and self-regulation strategies¹⁷17 Sonnentag S. Dynamics of Well-Being. Annu Rev Organ Psychol Organ Behav 2015; 2:17.1-17.33., emotional intelligence (IE)³²32 Lawrence SA, Troth AC, Jordan PJ, Collins AL. A review of emotion regulation and development of a framework for emotion regulation in the workplace. In: Perrewé PL, Ganster DC, editores. Research in Occupational Stress and Well-being. Bingley: Emerald; 2011. p. 197-263., greater psychological detachment²⁵25 Sonnentag S, Fritz C. Recovery from job stress: the stressor-detachment model as an integrative framework. J Organ Behav 2015; 36(S1):S72-S103., and age. Elderly adults are more effective in avoiding and regulating negative affects resulting from work events, reducing tension⁹9 Scheibe S, Zacher H. The role of emotion and emotion regulation in job stress and wellbeing. Res Occupational Stress Well-being 2013; 11:163-193. (Chart 2).

Empirical Studies: predictors

As negative predictors that affect work well-being (WBW), here we also see mainly stressors and lack of resources at work: psychosocial occupational risks³⁵35 Caran VCS, Freitas FCTD, Alves LA, Pedrão LJ, Robazzi MLDCC. Riscos ocupacionais psicossociais e sua repercussão na saúde de docentes universitários. Rev Enferm UERJ 2011; 19(2):255-261., perceived stress at work²2 Ford MT, Matthews RA, Wooldridge JD, Mishra V, Kakar UM, Strahan SR. How do occupational stressor-strain effects vary with time? A review and meta-analysis of the relevance of time lags in longitudinal studies. Work Stress 2014; 28(1):9-30., occupational stress¹1 Chen WQ, Wong TW, Yu TS. Influence of occupational stress on mental health among chinese off-shore oil workers. Scand J Public Health 2009; 37(7):766-773., stress from psychological threat²¹21 Bell A, Rajendran D, Theiler S. Job stress, wellbeing and work-life balance of academics. J Appl Psychol 2012; 8(1):25-37.^,3636 Bell A, Rajendran D, Theiler S. Spirituality at Work: An Employee Stress Intervention for Academics? Int J Business Soc Sci 2012; 3(11):68-82., high demands and lack of resources⁶6 Rothmann S, Malan M. Work-related well-being of South African hospital pharmacists. S Afr J Ind Psychol 2011; 37(1):1-11., illegitimate tasks³⁷37 Semmer NK, Jacobshagen N, Meier LL, Elfering A, Beehr TA, Kälin W, Tschan F. Illegitimate tasks as a source of work stress. Work Stress 2015; 29(1):32-56. (seen as unnecessary), and lack of social support³⁸38 Wadsworth EJK, Chaplin KS, Smith AP. The work environment, stress and well-being. Occup Med (Lond) 2010; 60(8):635-639.. Reduced managerial support was associated with a greater risk to mental health in the study by Chen et al.¹1 Chen WQ, Wong TW, Yu TS. Influence of occupational stress on mental health among chinese off-shore oil workers. Scand J Public Health 2009; 37(7):766-773.. Factors related to affection and its regulation were pointed out in fewer number, such as destructive emotions³⁹39 Rahimnia F, Mazidi A, Mohammadzadeh Z. Emotional mediators of psychological capital on well-being: the role of stress, anxiety, and depression. Management Sci Letters 2013; 3(3):913-926., maladaptive stress coping strategies⁴⁰40 Paris L, Omar A. Predictores de satisfacción laboral en médicos y enfermeros. Estud Psicol 2008; 13(3):233-244., and avoidance coping⁶6 Rothmann S, Malan M. Work-related well-being of South African hospital pharmacists. S Afr J Ind Psychol 2011; 37(1):1-11..

Notable positive predictors of WBW include personal resources such as high psychological capital (self-efficacy, optimism, and resilience) and constructive emotions³⁹39 Rahimnia F, Mazidi A, Mohammadzadeh Z. Emotional mediators of psychological capital on well-being: the role of stress, anxiety, and depression. Management Sci Letters 2013; 3(3):913-926., emotional competencies⁴¹41 Kinman G, Grant L. Exploring Stress Resilience in Trainee Social Workers: The Role of Emotional and Social Competencies. Br J Soc Work 2011; 41(2):261-275., increased awareness and management of emotions⁴²42 Carvalho CMSD, Barata EMMA, Parreira PMSD, Oliveira DC. Trabalho emocional e gestão de emoções em equipes de saúde oncológicas: um estudo qualitativo. Rev Enferm UERJ 2014; 22(1):9-15., emotional intelligence and willingness to flow in work²⁴24 Millán de Lange AC, Garcia-Alvarez DJ, D’Aubeterre Lopez ME. Efecto de la inteligencia emocional y flujo de trabajo sobre estresores y bienestar psicologico: analisis de ruta en docentes. Rev Colombiana Psicol 2014; 23(1):207-228., in addition to proactive problem-focused coping strategies⁶6 Rothmann S, Malan M. Work-related well-being of South African hospital pharmacists. S Afr J Ind Psychol 2011; 37(1):1-11.^,2626 Fortes-Ferreira L, Peiró JM, González-Morales MG, Martín I. Work-related stress and well-being: the roles of direct action coping and palliative coping. Scand J Psychol 2006; 47(4):293-302.^,4040 Paris L, Omar A. Predictores de satisfacción laboral en médicos y enfermeros. Estud Psicol 2008; 13(3):233-244.^,4343 Afonso JMP, Gomes AR. Stress Ocupacional em Profissionais de Segurança Pública: um estudo com militares da Guarda Nacional Republicana. Psicol Reflexão Crítica 2009; 22(2):294-303.

44 Gomes SDFS, Santos MMMCC, Carolino, ETDMA. Psycho-social risks at work: stress and coping strategies in oncology nurses. Rev Lat Am Enferm 2013; 21(6):1282-1289.^-4545 Shimazu A, Schaufeli WB. Does distraction facilitate problem-focused coping with job stress? A one year longitudinal study. J Behav Med 2007; 30(5):423-434.. Work resources such as organizational support, growth, and career opportunities proved to be WBW promoters in the research by Jackson et al.⁴⁶46 Jackson LT, Rothmann S, Van de Vijver FJ. A model of work related wellbeing for educators in South Africa. Stress Health 2006; 22(4):263-274..

The main predictors of malaise, tension, psychological stress, and other physical and psychological disorders were: psychosocial risk factors at work, that is, characteristics and conditions at work that act as stressors³⁵35 Caran VCS, Freitas FCTD, Alves LA, Pedrão LJ, Robazzi MLDCC. Riscos ocupacionais psicossociais e sua repercussão na saúde de docentes universitários. Rev Enferm UERJ 2011; 19(2):255-261.^,4747 Mosadeghrad AM, Ferlie E, Rosenberg D. A study of relationship between job stress, quality of working life and turnover intention among hospital employees. Health Serv Manage Res 2011; 24(4):170-181.^,4848 Serafim ADC, Campos ICM, Cruz RM, Rabuske MM. Riscos Psicossociais e Incapacidade do Servidor Público: Um Estudo de Caso. Psicol Cien Prof 2012; 32(3):686-705., and notable among these are illegitimate tasks³⁷37 Semmer NK, Jacobshagen N, Meier LL, Elfering A, Beehr TA, Kälin W, Tschan F. Illegitimate tasks as a source of work stress. Work Stress 2015; 29(1):32-56., threat stress²¹21 Bell A, Rajendran D, Theiler S. Job stress, wellbeing and work-life balance of academics. J Appl Psychol 2012; 8(1):25-37., time and deadline pressure, work overload, and high demands and low resources⁷7 Sanches EN, Santos JDF. Estresse em docentes universitários da saúde: situações geradoras, sintomas e estratégias de enfrentamento. Psicol Argum 2013; 31(75):615-626.^,4949 Fonseca AM, Soares E. Desgaste emocional: depoimentos de enfermeiros que atuam no ambiente hospitalar. RENE Fortaleza 2006; 7(1):91-97.^,5050 Gelsema TI, Van der Doef M, Maes S, Janssen M, Akerboom S, Verhoeven C. A longitudinal study of job stress in the nursing profession: causes and consequences. J Nurs Manag 2006; 14(4):289-299.. The consequences of constant exposure to stressors can be detrimental to well- being, damaging workers’ health⁷7 Sanches EN, Santos JDF. Estresse em docentes universitários da saúde: situações geradoras, sintomas e estratégias de enfrentamento. Psicol Argum 2013; 31(75):615-626.^,3535 Caran VCS, Freitas FCTD, Alves LA, Pedrão LJ, Robazzi MLDCC. Riscos ocupacionais psicossociais e sua repercussão na saúde de docentes universitários. Rev Enferm UERJ 2011; 19(2):255-261.^,4949 Fonseca AM, Soares E. Desgaste emocional: depoimentos de enfermeiros que atuam no ambiente hospitalar. RENE Fortaleza 2006; 7(1):91-97.^,5151 Sadir MA, Bignotto MM, Lipp MEN. Stress e qualidade de vida: influência de algumas variáveis pessoais. Paideia 2010; 20(45):73-81. (Chart 3).

Empirical Studies: moderators and mediators

Some authors investigated the protective factors against stress (moderators), that is, those personal or environmental characteristics, or the perception held about them, that can reduce the negative effects that the stress process can have on health and well-being, including: well-defined roles, leadership committed to the job and to the employees, possibility of breaking the routine, quality of resources, teamwork, pleasant environment with good interpersonal relationships⁵²52 Astudillo Díaz PR, Alarcón Muñoz AM, Lema García ML. Protectores de estrés laboral: percepción del personal de enfermería y médicos, Temuco, Chile. Cien Enfermería 2009; 15(3):111-122.; resiliency and support of supervisor/coworkers⁵³53 McCalister KT, Dolbier CL, Webster J, Mallon MW, Steinhardt MA. Hardiness and support at work as predictors of work stress and job satisfaction. Am J Health Promot 2006; 20(3):183-191., and the use of cognitive re-evaluation strategies in the interaction with coworkers⁵⁴54 Niven K, Sprigg CA, Armitage CJ. Does emotion regulation protect employees from the negative effects of workplace aggression? Eur J Work Organ Psychol 2013; 22(1):88-106.. Emotional competencies had both a protective role against stress as well as being a predictor of resilience and psychological well-being⁴¹41 Kinman G, Grant L. Exploring Stress Resilience in Trainee Social Workers: The Role of Emotional and Social Competencies. Br J Soc Work 2011; 41(2):261-275.. On the other hand, there were moderators that exacerbated the effect of stressors on well-being, such as the low perception of organizational support¹²12 Malik S, Noreen S. Perceived Organizational Support as a Moderator of Affective Well-being and Occupational Stress among Teachers. Pak J Commerce Soc Sci 2015; 9(3):865-874., the strategies of emotion regulation (ER) when used in the interaction with people from outside the organization, aimed at meeting occupational or organizational rules of expression (emotional labor)⁵⁴54 Niven K, Sprigg CA, Armitage CJ. Does emotion regulation protect employees from the negative effects of workplace aggression? Eur J Work Organ Psychol 2013; 22(1):88-106., and palliative or avoidant coping²⁶26 Fortes-Ferreira L, Peiró JM, González-Morales MG, Martín I. Work-related stress and well-being: the roles of direct action coping and palliative coping. Scand J Psychol 2006; 47(4):293-302..

The investigation of mediators was found in three studies. The first is that of Jackson et al.⁴⁶46 Jackson LT, Rothmann S, Van de Vijver FJ. A model of work related wellbeing for educators in South Africa. Stress Health 2006; 22(4):263-274. who tested and confirmed the mediation of burnout in the relationship between work demands and health problems, and the mediation of work engagement in the relationship between resources and commitment at work. The study by Karlsen et al.²⁷27 Karlsen E, Dybdahl R, Vitterso J. The possible benefits of difficulty: how stress can increase and decrease subjective well-being. Scand J Psychol 2006; 47(5):411-417. concluded that the effect of stress on well-being was positively mediated by a problem-focused coping process, associated with a growth component, leading to improved subjective well-being (SWB), and on the other hand, stress was negatively mediated by an avoidance coping process and a distress component, leading to a worsening of SWB. In the study by Kinman and Grant⁴¹41 Kinman G, Grant L. Exploring Stress Resilience in Trainee Social Workers: The Role of Emotional and Social Competencies. Br J Soc Work 2011; 41(2):261-275., resilience mediated the relationship between emotional intelligence (EI) and psychological well-being (PWB). Without imputing causality, they suggest that EI has an indirect effect on PWB through resilience (Chart 4).

Discussion

Analysis of the data reveals a distinction in the way WBW is approached. Some studies cover WBW in a combination of positive and negative aspects⁶6 Rothmann S, Malan M. Work-related well-being of South African hospital pharmacists. S Afr J Ind Psychol 2011; 37(1):1-11.^,2323 Ilies R, Aw SSY, Pluut H. Intraindividual models of employee well-being: What have we learned and where do we go from here? Eur J Work Organ Psychol 2015; 24(6):827-838.^,5555 Narainsamy K, Van Der Westhuizen S. Work related well-being: burnout, work engagement, occupational stress and job satisfaction within a medical laboratory setting. J Psychol Afr 2013; 23(3):467-474.. Others differentiate positive WBW and malaise/tension (negative facet of WBW) by adopting separate measures⁴4 Schaufeli WB, Taris TW. A critical review of the Job Demands-Resources Model: implications for improving work and health. In: Bauer GF, Hämmig O, editores. Bridging occupational, organizational and public health a transdisciplinary approach. Netherlands: Springer; 2014. p. 43-68.^,3636 Bell A, Rajendran D, Theiler S. Spirituality at Work: An Employee Stress Intervention for Academics? Int J Business Soc Sci 2012; 3(11):68-82.. The measurement instruments addressed positive aspects such as psychological (PWB), affective (AWB), and subjective (SWB) well-being; mental and physical health; engagement at work; satisfaction with life and work; and Quality of Work Life (QWL). Negative aspects were addressed by measuring psychological stress, tension, physical and psychological symptoms/disorders, and burnout. This variety indicates that there is amplitude in the proposed concept/models of well-being related to the complexity of the phenomenon.

It is observed that due to the great diversity of studies, some variables had different roles in the models tested, appearing either as predictors or moderators, positive or negative, of well-being, broadening the understanding of the dynamics of this construct. The lack of social support from peers and leaders was a negative predictor of WBW¹⁷17 Sonnentag S. Dynamics of Well-Being. Annu Rev Organ Psychol Organ Behav 2015; 2:17.1-17.33.^,2020 Laranjeira CA. O contexto organizacional e a experiência de estresse: uma perspectiva integrativa. Rev Salud Publica 2009; 11(1):123-133., and its presence was a positive predictor of WBW¹⁷17 Sonnentag S. Dynamics of Well-Being. Annu Rev Organ Psychol Organ Behav 2015; 2:17.1-17.33., also playing a moderating role in the study by McCalister et al.⁵³53 McCalister KT, Dolbier CL, Webster J, Mallon MW, Steinhardt MA. Hardiness and support at work as predictors of work stress and job satisfaction. Am J Health Promot 2006; 20(3):183-191. by mitigating the negative effect of stressors. In summary, the lack of social support had a greater negative impact on well-being than its presence contributed to well-being on the positive side⁴⁴44 Gomes SDFS, Santos MMMCC, Carolino, ETDMA. Psycho-social risks at work: stress and coping strategies in oncology nurses. Rev Lat Am Enferm 2013; 21(6):1282-1289.. In the study by Lee et al.⁵⁶56 Lee WL, Tsai SH, Tsai CW, Lee CY. A study on work stress, stress coping strategies and health promoting lifestyle among district hospital nurses in Taiwan. J Occup Health 2011; 53(5):377-383., the search for social support used as a coping strategy was associated with lower stress and a healthier lifestyle, demonstrating the importance of this factor for employees. The perception of organizational support, in turn, minimized the effect of stressors on WBW¹⁷17 Sonnentag S. Dynamics of Well-Being. Annu Rev Organ Psychol Organ Behav 2015; 2:17.1-17.33., while the low perception of this support had an inverse effect, with negative impact on well-being¹²12 Malik S, Noreen S. Perceived Organizational Support as a Moderator of Affective Well-being and Occupational Stress among Teachers. Pak J Commerce Soc Sci 2015; 9(3):865-874..

Functional emotion regulation (ER) strategies and emotional competencies were positive predictors of well-being³²32 Lawrence SA, Troth AC, Jordan PJ, Collins AL. A review of emotion regulation and development of a framework for emotion regulation in the workplace. In: Perrewé PL, Ganster DC, editores. Research in Occupational Stress and Well-being. Bingley: Emerald; 2011. p. 197-263.^,4141 Kinman G, Grant L. Exploring Stress Resilience in Trainee Social Workers: The Role of Emotional and Social Competencies. Br J Soc Work 2011; 41(2):261-275. as well as protectors against stress in the studies by Sonnentag¹⁷17 Sonnentag S. Dynamics of Well-Being. Annu Rev Organ Psychol Organ Behav 2015; 2:17.1-17.33. and Kinman and Grant⁴¹41 Kinman G, Grant L. Exploring Stress Resilience in Trainee Social Workers: The Role of Emotional and Social Competencies. Br J Soc Work 2011; 41(2):261-275.. In addition, affective well-being was associated with lower levels of stress, depression, and anxiety, in the study by Uncu et al.⁵⁷57 Uncu Y, Bayram N, Bilgel N. Job related affective well-being among primary health care physicians. Eur J Public Health 2007; 17(5):514-519.. In some studies, although moderators were not tested, certain factors may have acted to reduce the effects of stress. This is the case in the study by Goto et al.⁵⁸58 Goto AK, Souza MTS, Lima Jr. JV. Um estudo sobre o estresse em profissionais da área de logística da indústria automobilística. Psicol Política 2009; 9(18):291-311. in which the workers had a positive perception of well-being (satisfaction with life and work), despite the presence of various stressors. It can be assumed that the strategies used to handle them were effective. In the research by Bragard et al.⁵⁹59 Bragard I, Dupuis G, Fleet R. Quality of work life, burnout, and stress in emergency department physicians: a qualitative review. Eur J Emerg Med 2015; 22(4):227-234. there was high job satisfaction associated with the positive perception of the work itself, although the employees reported many stressors and burnout.

One can see that the work factors (e.g., stressors, lack of resources, difficulties in relationships) were more consolidated as negative predictors that undermine WBW¹1 Chen WQ, Wong TW, Yu TS. Influence of occupational stress on mental health among chinese off-shore oil workers. Scand J Public Health 2009; 37(7):766-773.^,33 Mihaila T. Perceived stress scale as a predictor of professional behavior and aspects of wellbeing. Rom J Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Hypnosis 2015; 2(2):1-14.^,66 Rothmann S, Malan M. Work-related well-being of South African hospital pharmacists. S Afr J Ind Psychol 2011; 37(1):1-11.^,1717 Sonnentag S. Dynamics of Well-Being. Annu Rev Organ Psychol Organ Behav 2015; 2:17.1-17.33.^,1818 Ganster DC, Rosen CC. Work stress and employee health: a multidisciplinary review. J Management 2013; 20(10):1-38.^,2121 Bell A, Rajendran D, Theiler S. Job stress, wellbeing and work-life balance of academics. J Appl Psychol 2012; 8(1):25-37.

22 Silva JLL, Santos RSFB, Costa FS, Taveira RPC, Teixeira LR. Estressores na atividade gerencial do enfermeiro: implicações para saúde. Avances Enfermería 2013; 31(2):144-152.^-2323 Ilies R, Aw SSY, Pluut H. Intraindividual models of employee well-being: What have we learned and where do we go from here? Eur J Work Organ Psychol 2015; 24(6):827-838.^,2525 Sonnentag S, Fritz C. Recovery from job stress: the stressor-detachment model as an integrative framework. J Organ Behav 2015; 36(S1):S72-S103.^,3535 Caran VCS, Freitas FCTD, Alves LA, Pedrão LJ, Robazzi MLDCC. Riscos ocupacionais psicossociais e sua repercussão na saúde de docentes universitários. Rev Enferm UERJ 2011; 19(2):255-261.

36 Bell A, Rajendran D, Theiler S. Spirituality at Work: An Employee Stress Intervention for Academics? Int J Business Soc Sci 2012; 3(11):68-82.

37 Semmer NK, Jacobshagen N, Meier LL, Elfering A, Beehr TA, Kälin W, Tschan F. Illegitimate tasks as a source of work stress. Work Stress 2015; 29(1):32-56.^-3838 Wadsworth EJK, Chaplin KS, Smith AP. The work environment, stress and well-being. Occup Med (Lond) 2010; 60(8):635-639., and personal resources (e.g., self-efficacy, emotion regulation) as positive predictors of WBW⁶6 Rothmann S, Malan M. Work-related well-being of South African hospital pharmacists. S Afr J Ind Psychol 2011; 37(1):1-11.^,1717 Sonnentag S. Dynamics of Well-Being. Annu Rev Organ Psychol Organ Behav 2015; 2:17.1-17.33.^,2424 Millán de Lange AC, Garcia-Alvarez DJ, D’Aubeterre Lopez ME. Efecto de la inteligencia emocional y flujo de trabajo sobre estresores y bienestar psicologico: analisis de ruta en docentes. Rev Colombiana Psicol 2014; 23(1):207-228.^,3232 Lawrence SA, Troth AC, Jordan PJ, Collins AL. A review of emotion regulation and development of a framework for emotion regulation in the workplace. In: Perrewé PL, Ganster DC, editores. Research in Occupational Stress and Well-being. Bingley: Emerald; 2011. p. 197-263.^,3333 Meyer JP, Maltin ER. Employee commitment and well-being: a critical review, theoretical framework and research agenda. J Vocat Behav 2010; 77(2):323-337.^,3939 Rahimnia F, Mazidi A, Mohammadzadeh Z. Emotional mediators of psychological capital on well-being: the role of stress, anxiety, and depression. Management Sci Letters 2013; 3(3):913-926.

40 Paris L, Omar A. Predictores de satisfacción laboral en médicos y enfermeros. Estud Psicol 2008; 13(3):233-244.

41 Kinman G, Grant L. Exploring Stress Resilience in Trainee Social Workers: The Role of Emotional and Social Competencies. Br J Soc Work 2011; 41(2):261-275.

42 Carvalho CMSD, Barata EMMA, Parreira PMSD, Oliveira DC. Trabalho emocional e gestão de emoções em equipes de saúde oncológicas: um estudo qualitativo. Rev Enferm UERJ 2014; 22(1):9-15.

43 Afonso JMP, Gomes AR. Stress Ocupacional em Profissionais de Segurança Pública: um estudo com militares da Guarda Nacional Republicana. Psicol Reflexão Crítica 2009; 22(2):294-303.^-4444 Gomes SDFS, Santos MMMCC, Carolino, ETDMA. Psycho-social risks at work: stress and coping strategies in oncology nurses. Rev Lat Am Enferm 2013; 21(6):1282-1289.. According to the Sonnentag¹⁷17 Sonnentag S. Dynamics of Well-Being. Annu Rev Organ Psychol Organ Behav 2015; 2:17.1-17.33. review, the results about personal resources are inconclusive for negative indicators of well-being. It is relevant to highlight controversial and ambivalent aspects found about coping strategies and ER. While, on the one hand, the use of problem-focused coping proves to be strongly consolidated in the literature as a positive predictor of WBW⁶6 Rothmann S, Malan M. Work-related well-being of South African hospital pharmacists. S Afr J Ind Psychol 2011; 37(1):1-11.^,4040 Paris L, Omar A. Predictores de satisfacción laboral en médicos y enfermeros. Estud Psicol 2008; 13(3):233-244.^,4343 Afonso JMP, Gomes AR. Stress Ocupacional em Profissionais de Segurança Pública: um estudo com militares da Guarda Nacional Republicana. Psicol Reflexão Crítica 2009; 22(2):294-303.

44 Gomes SDFS, Santos MMMCC, Carolino, ETDMA. Psycho-social risks at work: stress and coping strategies in oncology nurses. Rev Lat Am Enferm 2013; 21(6):1282-1289.^-4545 Shimazu A, Schaufeli WB. Does distraction facilitate problem-focused coping with job stress? A one year longitudinal study. J Behav Med 2007; 30(5):423-434., as well as related to lower stress and better health status⁵⁸58 Goto AK, Souza MTS, Lima Jr. JV. Um estudo sobre o estresse em profissionais da área de logística da indústria automobilística. Psicol Política 2009; 9(18):291-311., on the other, the results related to avoidance coping are contradictory. Although this strategy is mainly associated with negative indicators of well-being and health⁶6 Rothmann S, Malan M. Work-related well-being of South African hospital pharmacists. S Afr J Ind Psychol 2011; 37(1):1-11.^,4444 Gomes SDFS, Santos MMMCC, Carolino, ETDMA. Psycho-social risks at work: stress and coping strategies in oncology nurses. Rev Lat Am Enferm 2013; 21(6):1282-1289., in some situations it appears to have beneficial effects⁴⁰40 Paris L, Omar A. Predictores de satisfacción laboral en médicos y enfermeros. Estud Psicol 2008; 13(3):233-244., which reinforces the idea of the importance of regulatory flexibility depending on the context⁶⁰60 Bonanno GA, Burton CL. Regulatory flexibility: an individual differences perspective on coping and emotion regulation. Perspect Psychol Sci 2013; 8(6):591-612.. That is, the use of different ER strategies, depending on the situation, facilitates adaptation to the stressors. In this sense, Lawrence et al.³²32 Lawrence SA, Troth AC, Jordan PJ, Collins AL. A review of emotion regulation and development of a framework for emotion regulation in the workplace. In: Perrewé PL, Ganster DC, editores. Research in Occupational Stress and Well-being. Bingley: Emerald; 2011. p. 197-263. emphasize that it is not the mere use of certain regulatory strategies considered dysfunctional (e.g., suppression of emotions) that causes damage to health, but their habitual use.

Conclusion

The present review fulfills its objective in providing an overall view of national and international studies that relate stress and well-being at work, highlighting predictors, moderators, and mediators of this relationship. At the national level, it offers an additional contribution, since the two Brazilian review studies that were found analyzed only the predictors of WBW, without considering moderators and mediators. The review also reveals the emergence of new, more complex and sophisticated models, offering new insights into the processes and dynamics of well-being. In addition to the work factors, personal resources (resilience, self-efficacy, emotional competencies, ER, psychological detachment), work-life interface, and group-level factors are included in these models, clarifying the role they play in the relationship between stress and well-being.

Regarding organizational factors, the results indicate that lack of support, of resources, of good relations, and of other aspects related to work have a more negative impact on WBW indicators than their presence contributes to WBW on the positive side. The perception of organizational support and resources at work, especially autonomy and the social support of peers and managers, act as moderators, reducing the negative impact of stress on WBW. Regarding personal resources, they prove capable of letting a person preserve their well-being at work even in adverse conditions. Emotional competencies and functional emotion regulation strategies, besides being predictors of WBW, act as effective moderators, minimizing the negative effects of stressors. It is worth mentioning that although some strategies used to deal with stressful situations are considered adaptive or maladaptive, for being associated more frequently with positive or negative indicators of well-being and health, the consequences may vary depending on the context. The problem-focused coping strategy, for example, carries more benefits than that of avoidance, although the latter may be provisionally useful in situations where control over an adverse environment cannot be managed.

Considering the complexity of this issue, more studies should explore intrapersonal ER strategies, testing their different roles (moderators and mediators), in different situations and occupations, different age groups, including as well the emotion regulation strategies of the other people with whom they interact (interpersonal). In addition, it is noted that few mediators have been tested, representing a gap to be filled. Although it has not been the focus of this review, one can note that there are few studies that explore the effectiveness of interventions in personal resources (regulation skills and emotional competencies) and organizational changes, assessing their effects on stress and well-being.

Another suggestion is to test broader and more integrated models, which consider individual variability regarding demands and stressors, and the long-term positive and negative results on health and well-being. For this, more longitudinal studies are necessary to infer causality and also to understand the process and the dynamics of well-being at work. Another gap regarding the method refers to broadening the measurement beyond the self-report, with the use of measures of body responses, observation of work, daily monitoring, multi-level measures (e.g., interpersonal, group), integrating quantitative and qualitative analyses.

Regarding the limitations of this study, one can point out the selection of journals, which occurred in various databases and journals relevant to the area, although there may be others not consulted. And there may also be other levels of analysis and approaches about stress and well-being at work, beyond those used in this study.

As a practical contribution, the results found are relevant and can help support policies and programs to improve well-being and reduce stress of workers, from a more careful look at stressors, work resources, organizational and social support, interpersonal relationships, personal resources, and work-life balance. These factors have proven to be highly important and, if not properly treated, may constitute psychosocial risks with harmful consequences for workers’ health.

References

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